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7.2.1 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes also can be used to remove salt from produced water. Reverse osmosis membranes work on the premise that a pressure, greater than the osmotic pressure of the feed solution, must be applied to the system to force water through the membrane and reject the salt. The osmotic pressure is a function of the salinity of the water. For water with very high salinity, the osmotic pressure and, hence, the required system operating pressure are very high. For waters with high salinity, reverse osmosis is not a practical solution. Reverse osmosis generally is considered a cost effective treatment technology to use with seawater or the salinity up to 40,000 ppm TDS. Current research on the use of RO and NF membranes for produced water treatment emphasizes the tendency for organic fouling to increase the treatment cost and reduce the process efficiency (Mondal and Wickramasinghe 2008). Effect pretreatment technologies and appropriate membrane materials must be selected to make produced water treatment with RO and NF effective. Melo et al. investigate RO and NF use for treatment of produced water. They employed oil/water separation, warm softening, sand filters, ion exchange, and cartridge filtration as pretreatment to the RO and NF. The RO and NF were successful in meeting the treatment goals; however, fouling data was not presented, and further study is required to determine suitability of the water for beneficial use, the optimum process operating conditions, and the effects of the product water on soil for irrigation purposes (Melo, Schluter et al.). Mondal, et al. observed significant organic fouling on RO and NF membranes from treatment of produced water. They found that large MWCO, smooth, hydrophilic membranes experienced the least amount of fouling (Mondal and Wickramasinghe 2008). Sagle, et al. have been developing fouling resistant coatings for RO membranes to minimize the fouling potential of produced water using polyethylene hydrogels (Sagle, Van Wagner et al. 2009). 7.2.2 Electrodialysis/Electrodialysis Reversal Electrodialysis is an electrically driven process consisting of a stack of alternating cation-transfer membranes and anion-transfer membranes between an anode and a cathode. An electrical current is passed through the water. The dissolved salts in the water exist as ions and migrate toward the oppositely charged electrode. The anion-transfer membrane only allows passage of negatively charged ions, and the cation-transfer membrane only allows passage of positively charged ions. Alternating anion and cation transfer membranes are arranged in a stack. The membranes are impermeable to water. These systems are operated at a very low pressure, usually below 25 psi. Electrodialysis reversal also can be implemented where the charge on the electrodes is frequently reversed. This prevents buildup of scale, biofilm, and other foulants on the membrane surface. 85PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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