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The energy required for ED treatment is related to the TDS of the water—the higher the TDS, the more energy required for treatment. Current research suggests that ED is not cost competitive for treating water with a TDS greater than 1,500 mg/L. Sirivedhin et al. tested ED on five simulated produced water types of high and low TDS using Neosepta® membranes. They found that at 6.5 volts per stack, ED was not capable of producing water with an SAR that would be suitable for irrigation because ED removes divalent ions to a greater extent than monovalent ions (Sirivedhin, McCue et al. 2004). If ED, using divalent selective membranes, is to be used to treat produced water for beneficial use as irrigation water, calcium and/or magnesium will need to be added back to the water to lower the SAR. 7.2.3 Forward Osmosis Forward osmosis is an osmotically driven membrane process. Forward osmosis uses the feed water to be treated as the dilute process stream and water is moved across the membrane from the dilute feed water stream to a concentrated brine stream with a high osmotic pressure. The concentrated brine stream is called a draw solution. To enable forward osmosis to be cost effective, the components that contribute to the high osmotic pressure in the brine stream must be removed easily to leave behind the fresh water product. 7.2.4 Hybrid Membrane Processes 7.2.4.1 Two Pass Nanofiltration Two pass nanofiltration involves treating produced water with nanofiltration and then further treating the permeate water with nanofiltration again. This process is used to obtain a permeate stream with an even lower TDS than a single pass NF process and is less energy intensive than reverse osmosis. Western Environmental pilot tested this process for produced water (Bierle). 7.2.4.2 Dual RO with Chemical Precipitation Dual RO with chemical precipitation consists of a primary RO process. The concentrate from the first RO is further treated with lime softening and is then fed to a second stage RO. The permeate streams from both RO processes are collected and provide the product water from this process. Reported recoveries using this process are 95% and higher for brackish water applications. Utilizing this process enhances the recovery of the RO process but requires additional chemicals, additional equipment, and an increased footprint. 7.2.4.3 Dual RO with Softening Pretreatment and Operation at High pH This patented process is called HEROTM and consists of chemical softening as a pretreatment step, primary RO, and ion exchange, degasification, and pH increase on the concentrate from the first RO stage. The treated concentrate stream then is treated with a secondary RO. The product water from the primary and secondary 86PDF Image | Oil and Gas Produced Water Management
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