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Produced Water White Paper vii those that recycle or reuse produce water, and those that involve disposal of produced water. The first group of options (water minimization) includes techniques such as mechanical blocking devices or water shut-off chemicals that allow oil to enter the well bore while blocking water flow. Also included in this group are devices that collect and separate produced water either downhole or at the sea floor. Examples include downhole oil/water or gas/water separators, dual-completion wells, and subsea separators. The second group of options (reuse and recycle) includes underground injection to stimulate additional oil production, use for irrigation, livestock or wildlife watering and habitat, and various industrial uses (e.g., dust control, vehicle washing, power plant makeup water, and fire control). When the first two groups of management options cannot be used, operators typically rely on injection or discharge for disposal. The last portion of Chapter 5 describes various treatment technologies that can be employed before the produced water is injected or discharged. Chapter 6 offers summary data on produced water management costs. Produced water management is generally expensive, regardless of the cost per barrel, because of the large volumes of water that must be lifted to the surface, separated from petroleum product, treated (usually), and then injected or disposed of. The components that can contribute to overall costs include: site preparation, pumping, electricity, treatment equipment, storage equipment, management of residuals removed or generated during treatment, piping, maintenance, chemicals, in-house personnel and outside consultants, permitting, injection, monitoring and reporting, transportation, down time due to component failure or repair, clean up of spills, and other long-term liabilities. The cost of managing produced water after it is already lifted to the surface and separated from the oil or gas product can range from less than $0.01 to at least several dollars per barrel. The white paper includes discussion of several references that provide ranges or produced water management costs. The white paper is supported by more than 100 references, many of which have been published in the past three years.PDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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