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Produced Water White Paper 4 physical states including solution, suspension, emulsion, adsorbed particles, and particulates (Tibbetts et al. 1992). In addition to its natural components, produced waters from oil production may also contain groundwater or seawater (generally called “source” water) injected to maintain reservoir pressure, as well as miscellaneous solids and bacteria. Most produced waters are more saline than seawater (Cline 1998). They may also include chemical additives used in drilling and producing operations and in the oil/water separation process. Treatment chemicals are typically complex mixtures of various molecular compounds. These mixtures can include: - Corrosion inhibitors and oxygen scavengers to reduce equipment corrosion; - Scale inhibitors to limit mineral scale deposits; biocides to mitigate bacterial fouling; - Emulsion breakers and clarifiers to break water-in-oil emulsions and reverse breakers to break oil-in-water emulsions; - Coagulants, flocculants, and clarifiers to remove solids; and - Solvents to reduce paraffin deposits (Cline 1998). In produced water, these chemicals can affect the oil/water partition coefficient, toxicity, bioavailability, and biodegradability (Brendehaug et al. 1992). With increased development of subsea oil fields in the North Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, many of these additives will be required in larger amounts, to assure flow assurance in subsea pipelines (Georgie et al. 2001). 2.1.2 Produced Water from Gas Production Produced water is separated from gas during the production process. In addition to formation water, produced water from gas operations also includes condensed water. Produced waters from gas production have higher contents of low molecular-weight aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX) than those from oil operations; hence they are relatively more toxic than produced waters from oil production. Studies indicate that the produced waters discharged from gas/condensate platforms are about 10 times more toxic than the produced waters discharged from oil platforms (Jacobs et al. 1992). However, for produced water discharged offshore, the volumes from gas production are much lower, so the total impact may be less. The chemicals used for gas processing typically include dehydration chemicals, hydrogen sulfide-removal chemicals, and chemicals to inhibit hydrates. Well-stimulation chemicals that may be found in produced water from gas operations can include mineral acids, dense brines, and additives (Stephenson 1992). Significant differences between offshore oilfield produced water and offshore gas produced water exist for other parameters as well. For example, Jacobs et al. (1992) report that, in the North Sea, ambient pH is 8.1 and chlorides are about 19 g/L. Produced water discharges from oilPDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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