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Produced Water White Paper 8 as low as 0.1 parts per million (Glickman 1998). In addition, corrosion inhibitors can form more stable emulsions, thus making oil/water separation less efficient. 2.2.1.4 Produced Solids Produced water can contain precipitated solids, sand and silt, carbonates, clays, proppant, corrosion products, and other suspended solids derived from the producing formation and from well bore operations. Quantities can range from insignificant to a solids slurry, which can cause the well or the produced water treatment system to shut down. The solids can influence produced water fate and effects, and fine-grained solids can reduce the removal efficiency of oil/water separators, leading to exceedances of oil and grease limits in discharged produced water (Cline 1998). Some can form oily sludges in production equipment and require periodic removal and disposal. 2.2.1.5 Scales Scales can form when ions in a supersaturated produced water react to form precipitates when pressures and temperatures are decreased during production. Common scales include calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, strontium sulfate, and iron sulfate. They can clog flow lines, form oily sludges that must be removed, and form emulsions that are difficult to break (Cline 1998). 2.2.1.6 Bacteria Bacteria can clog equipment and pipelines. They can also form difficult-to-break emulsions and hydrogen sulfide, which can be corrosive. 2.2.1.7 Metals The concentration of metals in produced water depends on the field, particularly with respect to the age and geology of the formation from which the oil and gas are produced. However, there is no correlation between concentration in the crude and in the water produced with it (Utvik 2003). Metals typically found in produced waters include zinc, lead, manganese, iron, and barium. Metals concentrations in produced water are often higher than those in seawater. However, potential impacts on marine organisms may be low, because dilution reduces the concentration and because the form of the metals adsorbed onto sediments is less bioavailable to marine animals than metal ions in solution (Stephenson 1992). Besides toxicity, metals can cause production problems. For example, iron in produced water can react with oxygen in the air to produce solids, which can interfere with processing equipment, such as hydrocyclones, and can plug formations during injection (Bansal and Caudle 1999) or cause staining or deposits at onshore discharge sites.PDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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