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Produced Water White Paper 57 5.3.2 Treatment before Injection It is important to ensure that the water being injected is compatible with the formations receiving the water, to prevent premature plugging of the formation or other damage to equipment. It may be necessary to treat the water to control excessive solids, dissolved oil, corrosion, chemical reactions, or growth of microbes. Solids are usually treated by gravity settling or filtration. Reynolds (2003) reports that a common rule of thumb for solids control is that all particulate matter larger than one-third the average pore-throat size of the receiving formation should be removed. Residual amounts of oil in the produced water not only represent lost profit for producers but also can contribute to plugging of formations receiving the injectate. Various treatment chemicals are available to break emulsions or make dissolved oil more amenable to oil removal treatment. Corrosion can be exacerbated by various dissolved gases, primarily oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Oxygen scavengers and other treatment chemicals are available to minimize levels of undesired dissolved gases. The water chemistry of a produced water sample is not necessarily the same as that of the formation that will receive the injected water. Various substances dissolved in produced water may react with the rock or other fluids in the receiving formation and have undesired consequences. It is important to analyze the constituents of the produced water before beginning a water flood operation to avoid chemical reactions that may form precipitates. If necessary, treatment chemicals can minimize undesired reactions. Bacteria, algae, and fungi can be present in produced water or can be introduced during water handling processes at the surface. These are generally controlled by adding biocides or by filtration. 5.3.3 Onshore Wells 5.3.3.1 Discharges under the Agricultural and Wildlife Water Use Subcategory Little information is available on the treatment methods used before discharging produced water from oil and conventional gas wells under this subcategory. 5.3.3.2 Discharges from CBM Operations Some CBM water is clean enough that it can be discharged without treatment. Other produced water is bubbled over rocks to aerate it and allow iron to precipitate out before it is discharged to a stream. When more rigorous treatment is required, operators have sometimes used reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis is an effective water pollutionPDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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