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Produced Water White Paper 58 treatment method that passes a dirty water stream across a semipermeable membrane. Fresh water diffuses through the membrane, leaving behind a concentrated waste stream. Reverse osmosis has only been used sparingly in the hydrocarbon-production field because it is expensive and the membranes can be fouled or damaged by constituents in raw produced water. Often, produced water must be pretreated before it can be treated with reverse osmosis. Lee et al. (2002) describe several pretreatment methods that are being tested at Sandia National Laboratories and the Petroleum Recovery Research Center at New Mexico Tech. These include chemical treatment, filtration, biological treatment, polymeric absorbents, and macroporous polymer extraction. Other researchers have been investigating the use of natural clays for ion-exchange (Janks and Cadena 1992) or electrostatic precipitation (Atlas 2002; Welgemoed 2002). ALL (2003) provides short descriptions of these and several other water treatment technologies that are either already being used or may be applicable for treating CBM water. That study summarizes nine types of treatment processes and indicates the relative effectiveness of reducing different produced water contaminants. 5.3.3.3 Discharges from Stripper Wells Low oil production volumes do not contribute much income to stripper well operators. Consequently, they are not able to undertake complicated or expensive treatment. Adewumi et al. (1992) describe a simple, low-cost system used for produced water treatment in Pennsylvania. It involves separation, pH adjustment, aeration, solids separation, and filtration. DOE has funded a Stripper Well Consortium through Pennsylvania State University that supports research on ways to produce stripper wells and manage the water most cost-effectively. For more information on specific projects, see the Stripper Well Consortium’s website at: http://www.energy.psu.edu/swc/index.html. 5.3.3.4 Other Onshore Options Rather than dealing with treatment of water from numerous small-volume wells, many stripper-well or other onshore operators pay a contractor to remove the water for offsite disposal. This is generally accomplished by having a pump truck visit the well locations periodically and remove the accumulated water. The truck hauls the water to a disposal facility. Veil (1997b) compiled information on offsite commercial facilities that accepted produced water for disposal. Those facilities were located in nine oil-producing states. The predominant disposal method was injection, although some facilities in arid areas relied on evaporation pits. Several companies in Pennsylvania and one company in Wyoming treated the produced water and then discharged it to a stream via NPDES permit or to a municipal sewer system. Boysen et al. (2002) describe numerous approaches for managing produced water in the Rocky Mountain region. Some involve recycle and reuse, but one that is appropriate for discussion in this section is evaporation by portable misting towers. These are essentially spray nozzles at the top of vertical pipes. The water is sprayed into the air and evaporatesPDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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