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Produced Water White Paper 59 before hitting the ground. Boysen et al. (2002) report that one operator was able to evaporate at a rate of 30 gallons per minute during the warm, dry Wyoming summer. Constructed wetlands can be used to treat produced water (Myers 2000). Over the past few years, researchers have studied the feasibility of treating produced water using constructed wetlands at the Rocky Mountain Oilfield Testing Center (Jackson and Myers 2003). After two years of a three-year study, the authors noted that the wetlands improved water quality, good plant growth was observed, and wetland functions were similar to those found in natural wetlands. The treatment performance of the wetlands was affected by temperature. Boysen et al. (1996) describe an innovative process that relies on natural freezing and thawing coupled with evaporation to treat produced water (Freeze/Thaw Evaporation). This results in a concentrated brine stream and a clean water stream. Unless artificial refrigeration is employed, this process is limited to cold climates during cold times of the year. 5.3.4 Offshore Wells The large majority of offshore produced water is discharged to the ocean. The primary pollutant of concern is oil and grease, which is regulated by EPA’s national ELGs for offshore activities and is made part of all U.S. offshore discharge permits. Unlike onshore discharges, for which salinity is a key consideration, offshore discharges need not worry about that parameter. Depending on the EPA region, operators must meet various other discharge limitations, including restrictions on flow rate, toxicity testing, and monitoring for several toxic metals, organics, and naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM). Most of the treatment technology for offshore produced water is geared toward removing oil and grease. The next section discusses some important issues concerning oil and grease, how it is measured, and the influence of measurement on permit compliance. 5.3.4.1 What Is Oil and Grease? Oil and grease is not a single chemical compound, but a measure of many different types of organic materials that respond to a particular analytical procedure. Different analytical methods will measure different organic fractions and compounds. Therefore, the specific analytical method used is important in determining the magnitude of an oil and grease measurement. This is particularly important because of the phasing out of the use of Freon-113 as an extraction solvent (EPA Method 413.1) over the past decade. That longstanding standard-approved method (which was used to collect all the effluent data used in establishing the statistically derived ELGs limit for oil and grease) has been replaced by EPA Method 1664, which uses n-hexane as the extraction solvent. Raia and Caudle (1999) report on a study sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute to compare the results of the two methods. The standard deviations of the results were in the same order of magnitude or larger than the means, thereby making it difficult to determine if the results are comparable. Most of the samples showed higher values whenPDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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