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Produced Water White Paper 60 measured by the new method. This raises some concern over compliance. For example, if the new method measures 44 mg/L while the old method measures 40 mg/L for the same sample, this is the difference between compliance and noncompliance with the maximum ELGs limit for oil and grease of 42 mg/L. Subsequent papers have debated the use of alternative types of solvents (for example Keathley and Konrad 2000; Wilks 2001). These are highly technical chemical discourses that are outside of the scope of this white paper. Nevertheless, analytical measurement continues to be an important topic. It is also worth noting that the standard oil and grease method approved for measuring North Sea discharges is different from the two methods mentioned above (Yang and Tulloch 2003). Although there are many different oil and grease methods, only Method 1664 is approved for official NPDES compliance purposes. Some of the other methods may be quicker or less expensive. Some of them can be utilized in continuous on-line devices for process monitoring purposes, but those other methods cannot be substituted for the official permit samples. A second point is that not all produced waters contain the same constituents even if they have the same oil and grease content. Oil and grease is made up of at least three forms: - Free oil (this is in the form of large droplets that are readily removable by gravity separation methods), - Dispersed oil (this is in the form of small droplets that are more difficult to remove), and - Dissolved oil (these are hydrocarbons and other similar materials that are dissolved in the water stream; they are often challenging to remove). For example, take two untreated produced water samples, both of which contain 100 mg/L of oil and grease. Produced water A has primarily free oil whereas produced water B has primarily dissolved oil. In order to meet the maximum discharge limit of 42 mg/L, the types of treatment processes and the cost of those processes would be vastly different. This is the challenge faced by offshore operators. McFarlane et al. (2002) report on a collaborative project between Oak Ridge National Laboratory and several major oil companies to better characterize and predict the types of water-soluble organics that are present in offshore produced water. With this background, the following sections describe different treatment processes that have been used to treat offshore produced water. 5.3.4.2 Offshore Treatment Technology Offshore produced water treatment can be challenging because offshore facilities do not have abundant space or weight capacity for treatment equipment. In addition, offshore environments are remote and typically harsh; equipment and processes that operate there must be designed for those environments. For the past 13 years, a group of offshorePDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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