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Produced Water White Paper 61 water specialists has gathered in Houston each January for the Produced Water Seminar. This gathering is informal yet highly informative for learning about new produced water management technologies and analytical and regulatory issues. Many of the references cited in this section are papers presented at the seminars. In recent years, this group has formed the Produced Water Society. Information about the society and ordering seminar papers is available at www.producedwatersociety.net. Other organizations in the United States and Europe have also held useful meetings focused on offshore produced water. Many authors have described programs for produced water treatment at offshore facilities (for example, Favret and Doucet 1999; Tyrie 2000; Caudle 2000; Robinson 2003; Greenwood 2003). The water is first pretreated by skimmers or other basic separation equipment to remove oil droplets greater than 100 microns in size. Devices to promote coalescence of small oil droplets into larger droplets may be used here, too. Tulloch (2003) describes a pre-coalescer device that consists of a bundle of oleophilic fibers placed inside of a flow line. The fibers serve to aggregate small oil droplets for easier downstream removal. Next, the water receives primary treatment to remove additional free oil. The types of equipment used for primary treatment include liquid/liquid hydrocyclones, corrugated plate separators, and centrifuges. Faucher and Sellman (1998) describe the use of centrifuges to remove oil and solids. Secondary treatment to remove emulsified oil and suspended solids is the next stage of treatment. Flotation cells, adsorption, ion exchange, filtration, and organic extraction are used in secondary treatment. Cline (2000) offers a useful overview of flotation technology. The principle of flotation is to create many very small air or gas bubbles that rise through a vessel filled with produced water and carry small oil droplets and solids particles to the surface of the vessel where they can be skimmed off. Chemicals may be added to help break emulsions. Cline reviews the flotation equipment offered by several different vendors, and discusses efficiencies, advantages, and disadvantages. Jahnsen and Vik (2003) report on North Sea trials of a compact flotation unit that combines separation, gas flotation, and centrifugal separation in the same device. Several years of trials showed very low oil and grease in the effluent. There are several types of filtration devices used for produced water treatment (Tyrie 1998). Some utilize membrane filters that are often deployed as cartridges, which can be replaced when filled. Nicolaisen and Lien (2003) provide an overview of membrane filter applications and suggest that membranes in the ultrafiltration size range are appropriate for offshore produced water. Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes have smaller pore size and can be deployed downstream of the ultrafiltration filters, if needed. Some operators use media filters that are backwashed periodically. Kozar (2000) reports on filters filled with crushed walnut shells. Brock et al. (2003) describes another type of media filter that features a radial flow design to allow on-line cleaning of the media without having to stop for backwashing.PDF Image | Produced Water from Production of Crude Oil
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