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Energies 2017, 10, 413 12 of 26 shortlist a few fluids that could be suitable for the thermodynamic conditions of the heat source. In particular, the deterioration temperature plays a crucial role in the determination of the reliability of the system. In fact, when deterioration occurs, the organic fluid needs to be replaced in the ORC plants, which constitutes a non-negligible cost. Erhart et al. [63] pointed out that the recovery of the used working fluid that did not experience deterioration can significantly reduce the operating cost of ORC systems. The application sets the maximum temperatures that the working fluid will see and the thermal capacity of the heat source. Following a preliminary screening of the fluids based on the aforementioned properties, the remaining candidates are studied in detail to make a final decision on the fluid that best suits the specific requirements of an application. Tchanche et al. [16] compared the performance of twenty working fluids in solar applications, considering thermodynamic performance and environmental properties. They highlighted that flammability is a key factor in the selection process of the working fluid. Papadopoulos et al. [64] introduced the CAMD (Computer-Aided Molecular Design) technique to select the optimal working fluid for ORC applications. They took into account technical, economic and safety aspects in ranking conventional and non-conventional fluids. The performance of the working fluid in an ORC system is evaluated by means of the thermodynamic analysis. Different methods have been proposed to perform the thermodynamic analysis of the ORC. Those are based on steady or unsteady (dynamic) models. The reader is referred to the work of Ziviani et al. [65], who presented an extended review of the modelling tools employed in the design of ORC systems. Linke et al. [66] reviewed the approaches developed by researchers for the systematic selection of working fluids and the design, integration and control of ORCs. Mago et al. [67] investigated four different dry fluids in basic and regenerative ORC configurations. They ranked the fluids combining first and second law efficiency. Saleh et al. [68] investigated 31 different organic fluids for low temperature ORCs. Drescher et al. [15] discussed ORC fluid selection in biomass applications, based on the efficiency of the system. Rayegan and Tao [69] proposed a procedure to compare ORC working fluids. He screened them in terms of thermal efficiency, net power generated, vapour expansion ratio and exergy efficiency. Dai et al. [70] used a genetic algorithm to compare organic fluids using exergy efficiency as the objective function. They demonstrated that organic fluids perform better than water in exploiting energy from waste heat sources at low temperature. In particular, R236ea resulted in being the best performing among the ten fluids considered. Qiu [71] introduced the bucket effect and the spinal point method to select the proper working fluid for ORC applications. Some authors investigated zeotropic mixtures through steady state analysis to understand if they can offer any advantage. Angelino and Di Paliano [72] investigated fluid mixtures for ORC applications. They pointed out that the use of mixtures complicates the design of components in that fluid fractionation (i.e., the separation of a chemical compound into components) should be avoided in the heat exchangers during phase change. It is important to note that the state of the art in the modelling of ORC systems is based on steady state conditions. Dynamic models characterize the behaviour of the system under transient conditions. This type of analysis is extremely important for applications in which the duty cycle of the heat source presents fluctuating behaviour such as vehicle or solar applications. The dynamic behaviour of ORC systems depends on the working fluid considered. In particular, the heat transfer properties of the organic fluid play a crucial role in the definition of the dynamics of the system. In fact, the heat transfer properties of the working fluid affect the design of the heat exchangers, which are the components with the highest time constant in an ORC system. The working fluids with good heat transfer properties allow for the design of more compact heat exchangers, which in turn enhances the ability of ORC to both reduce cost/weight and to react faster to varying conditions of the heat source. Fast reacting systems are crucial in applications where the heat source is subject to a duty cycle and therefore does not have constant thermodynamic conditions (e.g., temperature and/or mass flow rate). Several works aim at defining a proper control strategy to maximize the performance of the ORC over the whole duty cycle of the heat source. Quoilin et al. [73] proposed a dynamic model to study the behaviour of a small-scale ORC for waste heat recovery applications. Particular emphasis was given to the transientPDF Image | Small Scale Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
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