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3. BACKGROUND 3.1 Produced Water Characteristics Oil and gas exploration and production (E&P) activities generate a variety of waste materials requiring management. These waste materials include produced waters, spent drilling fluids, used drilling muds and drill cuttings. Produced water is the largest wastewater source by volume generated during oil and gas extraction. Produced water is the fluid (often called brine) brought up from the hydrocarbon-bearing strata during the extraction of oil and gas and includes, where present, formation water, injection water, and any chemicals added downhole or during drilling, production or maintenance processes. The ratio of produced water to hydrocarbon recovered in oil and gas extraction in the U.S. can vary greatly across different formations. For example, stakeholders reported ratios of produced water to oil ranging from less than 1:1 to more than 100:1. Naturally occurring constituents include, but are not limited to, bromide, calcium, chloride, magnesium, sulfate, and radioactive materials. Materials added downhole include hydraulic fracturing chemicals, well stimulation chemicals and well maintenance chemicals. Over time, the characteristics and volume of produced water generated for a well can change. In addition, periodic well maintenance and stimulation activities can affect produced water characteristics and generation rates. The purpose, quantity and characteristics of materials utilized during well development, stimulation and maintenance are diverse. For example, the EPA identified some 692 unique ingredients reported for additives, base fluids and proppants contained in more than 39,000 FracFocus7 disclosures provided by the Groundwater Protection Council (GWPC) (U.S. EPA, 2015). Table 3-1 describes the types and purposes of some additives used in well development, stimulation and well maintenance activities. There are many sources of produced water characterization data available. The most comprehensive that the EPA identified is the USGS National Produced Waters Geochemical Database (USGS database), containing geochemical data for produced water and other deep formation waters from wells in the United States (USGS, 2014). The USGS database is periodically updated (for example, Version 2.1 includes data for almost 60,000 wells in 36 states, sampled between 1900 and 2012). Data for select parameters from Version 2.2 of the USGS, database are shown in Figure 3-1 as box and whisker plots, showing the minimum (excluding non-detect values), 25th percentile, median, 75th percentile and maximum values for each parameter8. As illustrated in Figure 3-1, the concentration of these select parameters varies greatly. A more complete discussion of Section 3−Background 7 FracFocus is a publicly accessible website managed by GWPC and the Interstate Oil and Gas Compact Commission (IOGCC) where oil and gas production well operations can disclose information about ingredients used in hydraulic fracturing fluids at individual wells. 8 These plots were generated by extracting all data from the database for conventional hydrocarbon, shale gas, tight gas and tight oil well types. Zero values and entries listed as unknown were excluded from the counts and statistics. Study of Oil and Gas Extraction Wastewater Management 5PDF Image | Study of Oil and Gas Extraction Wastewater
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