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distances to urban load centers. Wide-area control involves using high-precision data from phasor measurement units and high-performance computing techniques to analyze the transmission grid and reconfigure it as needed in real time. In principle, this could allow some relaxation of restrictions on key transmission corridors due to stability limitations, because the grid could be reconfigured instantly to relieve a stability contingency. Wide-area control technology is a long-term technology development focus for smart grids at the transmission level. When it may become practical, and how much additional new transmission capacity to serve renewable generation could be avoided, is not yet clear. Dynamic thermal rating schemes are available today. They use sensors to account for the actual local weather conditions when computing the thermal capacity limits on transmission line segments, instead of assuming worst-case conditions, as is the current practice. When and where the wind is blowing can lower conductor temperatures and thereby reduce line sag enough so that additional power can be delivered. How much avoided transmission capacity this promising technology can deliver in practice is uncertain. While it can increase throughput on specific lines under certain conditions, many transmission systems are constrained by stability limits rather than thermal limits. Even when wind power output is high, it may not be blowing sufficiently at a key constrained transmission segment to sufficiently increase the throughput sufficiently to accommodate the increased generation. Further research is required on this subject before such estimates can be made. Another way a smart grid can assist renewable generation is to remove barriers that may limit its penetration. Aside from the cost hurdles associated with providing extra ancillary services, more absolute barriers are not generally unforeseen by experts, at least until the renewable portfolio reaches levels above 20%. One example of such a barrier is explicitly addressed in Section 3.2.1 of this report: the limits to the amount of solar generation in neighborhoods, presumably from solar photovoltaic (PV) installations, before reverse power flow toward the substation occurs and distribution voltage control is lost (we do not attempt to ascribe savings associated with overcoming this barrier). Perhaps the ultimate barrier that can be foreseen is the limit to the share of energy needs provided by renewable generation. Beyond ancillary services, other power plants will need to provide replacement energy for days and occasional weeks when renewable resources do not produce their average output. The first barrier is simply one of cost for the replacement reserve capacity. Although demand response is unlikely to produce significant energy for days at a time, a smart grid’s storage resources may be able to provide a day or more, and backup distributed generation could provide supply over an even longer period. An absolute limit on the share of energy that can be produced from renewable generation is eventually reached when the fuel consumed by power plants to supply replacement energy becomes the only non-renewable production by the grid. At that point, the addition of further renewable capacity does not result in a corresponding increase in production of renewable energy.1 A smart grid aggressively managing storage resources, potentially including batteries in PHEVs and EVs, becomes essential in overcoming this limit. Estimating when this limit is reached and the corresponding share of renewable electricity production becomes significant is extremely complex and beyond the scope of this report. 1 Unless it is from a new form of renewable generation that increases diversity, or that is not variable. Geothermal, tidal, and wave energy are some examples. 3.31PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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