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reviewed studies showed no energy savings, and that fewer than 10% investigated long-term effects (1 year or greater). A.2.1 Information Interventions Becker (1978) reported a study involving goal setting and information feedback to reduce electricity use. Households that were challenged with a difficult goal and receiving feedback three times weekly concerning energy usage saved 15.1% compared to households given an easier savings goal. The information provided related to which appliances used the most electricity. In contrast, Geller (1981) provided workshop-based information to consumers about energy saving measures and found that while intentions to save energy increased, there were no corresponding changes in energy use based on home visits. There is some evidence to suggest that self-report of energy conservation portrays a more socially desirable result than is actually the case (Luyben 1982). Tailored information based on energy audits and interviews has been shown to reduce energy consumption. Winnet et al. (1982) found that households receiving energy audit information concerning heating and air conditioning used 21% less electricity than a control group. McMakin et al. (2002) provided targeted information related to heating in the state of Washington and air conditioning in the state of Arizona. It found that households in Washington saved 10% during the study period compared to a baseline measure, whereas the Arizona residents used 2% more energy. A study involving a cable TV program illustrating specific energy-saving measures obtained a 10% energy reduction compared to a control group (Winnett et al. 1985). A.2.2 Feedback on Current Energy Usage An early study of continuous feedback (McClelland and Cook 1979) provided feedback for a period of 11 months, with a meter showing electricity use in cents per hour. The group receiving this feedback used 12% less electricity than a control group over the 11-month test period. A similar continuous cost indicator study by Hutton et al. (1986) found a 4% to 5% savings in a Canadian city, but no savings in an American city. The Americans showed an increase in knowledge, but no behavioral effect. The frequency of feedback has been shown to influence savings, such that continuous feedback yields a 12% savings and monthly feedback yields 8%, whereas an “information only” condition yields 4%. All savings were calculated relative to a control group. More recently, Chassin and Kiesling (2008) showed a 20% savings in a time-of-use pricing group with continuous feedback, compared to real-time pricing and control groups. This contrasts with an earlier finding by Sexton et al. (1987), who showed that feedback resulted in shifting use from peak to non-peak-load times, but no change in overall usage. Feedback frequency appears to influence the level of energy savings, such that daily feedback is better than weekly or longer intervening periods. For example, Winnet et al. (1979) compared daily feedback with self-monitoring based on households reading their own meters and found that daily feedback yielded a 13% savings compared to 7% in the self-monitoring group. Comparative feedback involves presenting information to consumers about their energy consumption relative to others. Midden et al. (1983) evaluated individual versus comparative feedback and found little difference, although there were savings in the range of 6% to 19% for electricity usage. Brandon and Lewis (1999) showed that computer-based feedback is relatively more effective than leaflets, and that A.2PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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