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• The EPRI/NDRC study performed a scenario analysis that defined three possible CO2-intensity paths (high, medium, low). For these scenarios, the study determined emission projections for 2010 and 2050. For the 2010 results, the study concluded that PHEVs will reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 28% to 34% compared to conventional vehicles, even in the case when all electricity is supplied by coal-fired power plants currently in operation. The GHG emissions of a PHEV would be 1% to 11% higher dependent upon battery size when compared to HEVs. These results are consistent with the ORNL study and, by extension, consistent with the PNNL study as well. For the 2050 cases, however, the study estimated the PHEV GHG emissions to be lower compared to even a HEV for all CO2 intensity scenarios. These national studies all suggest that the CO2 benefits highly depend on the reference vehicle to which a PHEV or EV will be compared (more on this subject below). Furthermore, the results indicate that the timing and the duration of the charging influence the carbon intensity. Absent any new clean base-load capacity, the marginal generation at night will, to a great degree, remain coal-based with high carbon emissions. On an energy-per-VMTs basis, EVs, in general, have a higher total efficiency by about 30% above that for conventional vehicles (See Table F.1) Argonne National Laboratories’ GHGs, regulated emissions, and energy use in transportation (GREET). The energy conversion in the vehicle itself is clearly more efficient with electric motors (efficiencies are in the range of 70% to 80%. Full-trip efficiencies of batteries (full-charge/full-discharge cycle) is in the 80% range, yielding EV efficiencies in the mid to upper 60% range. This is about twice the efficiency of internal combustion energy, which is in the mid to upper 20% range. Table F.1. Energy and CO2 Emissions Benefits Using the GREET Model, 2001 ECAR ERCOT MACC MAIN MAPP NPCC FRCC SERC SPP PNWAZN&RM CNV Power Generation Composition Natural Gas 32% 94% 74% 42% 1% 91% 69% 57% 78% 43% 63% 93% Coal 68% 6%26%58%99%9%31%43%22%57%37%7% Energy Energy Ratio (Electric Vehicle/Gasoline Vehicle) Total Energy 0.71 0.68 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.69 0.70 0.70 0.69 0.71 0.70 0.69 Emissions Emissions Ratio (Electric Vehicle/Gasoline Vehicle) CO2 0.87 0.60 0.69 0.83 1.01 0.61 0.71 0.76 0.66 0.84 0.73 0.61 US total 0.70 0.73 F.2.1 Implementation Requirements and Process for Smart Grid Application The smart grid implementation to support EV technology involves one strong and one weak or optional requirement: Strong requirement: Load-management technology and strategies, sometimes referred to as “smart charging” technologies, are a key requirement to guard against the emerging EV load to be coincident with the system peak load, and with local and regional transmission and distribution bottlenecks. Load- management technologies and strategies will be needed to schedule the vehicle load, based on pricing signals coupled with customer preferences that may influence the load schedule, and by allowing overrides and setting constraints as to when the vehicle will need to be fully charged. The availability of F.3PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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