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price signals sent to customers is a necessary requirement for smart charging strategies; however, they not sufficient. Vehicles or charging stations need to be equipped with communication technologies to receive price signals or other signals to determine or influence the charging schedule. In addition, there needs to be consumer acceptance of this technology to fully utilize its effectiveness. Furthermore, a wide dissemination of the communication technology requires standardization of communication protocols to provide uniformity across the nation and even the North American continent. The infrastructure requirement for smart charging does not require any technology specific to transportation. It could leverage all the smart grid investments made for residential and commercial customer demand response applications. Optional requirement: The new emerging load could provide significant benefit as a spinning reserve resource, freeing up generator capacity for energy production. This spinning reserve would be delivered as load resource. It will not require that electricity be fed from the battery back into the grid. The spinning reserve resource could be implemented either with communication utilizing the infrastructure (mentioned above) as a strong requirement. An alternative approach that does not require communication to the load, is a frequency-based approach in which load shedding occurs automatically when the voltage is under-frequency. Implementation of the under-frequency load shedding requires a utility-grade frequency sensor and a controller device1. The new load lends itself to be utilized as a spinning-reserve resource because the events are generally short in duration (15 min or less) and will not noticeably impact the battery-charging process. F.3 Summary This topic examines how advanced load-management technologies through smart charging can improve the overall grid efficiency and reduce carbon emissions compared to unmanaged charging of the emerging EV fleet. The marginal benefits due to the managed charging of EVs and PHEVs enabled by smart grid technology will provide reductions in ancillary services, load management, and reductions in energy consumption and CO2 emissions. These improvements would be in addition to the fuel-switching benefits and inherent efficiency improvements as the vehicle fleet replaces gasoline-fueled internal combustion engines with electric motors. National studies suggest that the CO2 benefits depend highly on the reference vehicle to which a PHEV or EV will be compared (more on this subject below). The results indicate that the timing and duration of the charging influence the carbon intensity, and that emission reductions may be as high as a ~30% net increase. F.3.1 Energy and Carbon Reductions EV transportation fundamentally requires more energy from the grid, not less, as electricity displaces fossil transportation fuel (primarily gasoline). There are inherent efficiency benefits when electric motors replace gasoline engines. To capture these efficiency benefits, one has to consider the inter-sectoral shift in the energy requirements from transportation fuel to electricity and then estimate the energy benefits resulting from this fuel switch. The energy benefits are estimated from a well-to-wheel perspective that 1 PNNL developed a control technology for this application. More information can be obtained at: http://gridwise.pnl.gov/docs/pnnlsa36565.pdf F.4PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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