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generating units, thus reducing the overall emissions. So even when there is no net reduction in load, there are potential capacity and emission reductions. The net benefit of CVR is dependent on the system design, load composition, and generation mix. Analytically determining the aggregate effect on a distribution feeder for a given reduction in voltage is a non-trivial task that cannot be determined with existing commercial software packages. G.2.2 Deployed CVR Examples In the absence of effective analytic techniques, numerous distribution utilities have taken on the cause of CVR and implemented CVR systems to empirically evaluate the operational benefits. Two of the first utilities to systematically examine the operational impact of CVR, and publish the results, were the Snohomish Public Utility District (PUD) in Everett, Washington (Kennedy and Fletcher 1991), and Commonwealth Edison in Chicago, Illinois (Kirshner 1990). In both cases, the feeder voltage was lowered at the substation to a level that ensured that the most remote load on the feeder would be within the requirements of ANSI C84.1 (ANSI 1996). The primary metric for CVR is the CVR savings factor (CVRf), which is a ratio of the percent change of energy consumption for a given percent change in voltage level (%E/%V) (Fletcher and Saeed 2002). Positive values of CVRf indicate that the system is consuming less energy as the voltage is lowered and a negative value indicates the opposite. In both cases, (Kennedy and Fletcher 1991; Kirshner 1990), it was found that the CVRf was in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 and the net energy consumed by the feeders was reduced. For Snohomish PUD where the average feeder has 12,500,000 MWh of load, a reduction of 2.1 volts, with a CVRf of 0.621 yields energy savings of 162,500 kWh/year per feeder (Kennedy and Fletcher 1991). If the generation unit is fueled by natural gas, approximately 211,250 pounds of carbon dioxide per feeder is displaced per year. To determine the total carbon dioxide reduction for the entire Snohomish PUD service area a detailed breakdown of their generation mix is required. The most comprehensive evaluation of CVR is discussed in the “Distribution Efficiency Initiative 2007 Report” prepared for the Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance (Beck 2007). In this report, 11 distribution utilities in the Pacific Northwest participated in a two-part study to determine the effectiveness of CVR. The first part of the study was a load research project and the second part was a series of pilot demonstration projects. The load research project involved installing 395 load-regulation devices at the point of connection for residential customers. The reason for doing this was to determine the exact CVRf values for individual residences and compare these values to those determined at the substation. The result was that there were discrepancies between the values of CVRf determined at the residences, 0.569, and at the substation, 0.690. The discrepancy is due to the differences in electrical characteristics between the electrical load and the distribution system. Accurate determination of the CVR effects must include analysis of the electrical load as well as the design of the distribution system. The design of the distribution feeders includes everything from line and cable types, line and cable configurations, use of voltage correction capacitors, and use of tap-changing voltage regulators for transformers. The second part of the study involved the analysis of multiple CVR pilot projects that utilized methods for voltage control. The method of voltage control was often determined by the hardware capabilities of the utilities. The two most common methods of voltage control were line-drop compensation and active monitoring and control of an end-point voltage. Line-drop compensation is a relatively low-cost method of ensuring G.2PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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