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Mechanism H: Support Penetration of Solar Generation (RPS > 25%) H.1 Introduction Solar photovoltaic (PV) power is one of the most recognizable forms of renewable energy. The ability to convert sunlight directly into electricity with zero emissions, excluding manufacturing and disposal of the solar cells and associated equipment, led many people to believe that it is an ideal solution to the growing demand for electricity (Kroposki et al. 2008). In the 1960s and 1970s, when the cost of solar PV was still very high, it was only used in applications were an interconnection to the electricity infrastructure was very expensive or impractical. These applications included satellites, navigation aids, and remote highway indicators. Starting in the 1980s, the prices for solar PV began to lower to the point where they could be installed at residential locations, although they were still relatively expensive. Since 2000, the price of solar PV arrays has dropped to the point where they are starting to become economically competitive, especially with the aid of tax credits. If this trend continues as expected, solar PV will become an economically viable method for the distributed production of power in the near future (Kroposki et al. 2008). When this occurs on large scales, it will be conceivable that electric distribution feeders will have numerous solar PV arrays feeding power back into the system, possibly reversing the flow of power on the entire feeder (Ueda et al. 2005a, b). While this has significant social benefits, in the form of reduced emissions, the distribution systems that exist today were not designed to operate in this manner. H.2 Review H.2.1 Power Production with Solar PV Individual solar PV cells can be electrically connected in series and/or parallel to deliver the desired voltage and current. This can range from a small single cell on a calculator, to a multiple-array rooftop application, all the way to a large-scale utility application. In areas with significant sunlight, such as the American Southeast, solar PV has the potential to produce significant amounts of energy. Incident solar energy at sea level is approximately 1 kW/m2 on a clear day. Assuming 20% cell efficiency and a 90% conversion efficiency to alternating current (AC), this results in approximately 180 W/m2 of useable power as an upper limit. This number is reduced in higher latitudes and areas that do not have clear weather. While this may reduce the total usable power to tens of watts per square meter, this technology can be deployed over hundreds or thousands of square meters, resulting in significant amounts of power. In 2008, Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) announced that it would sign an agreement for 800 MW of central solar PV power (PG&E 2008). This is an example of a large installation similar to a wind farm and, as such, it will be interconnected to the transmission or sub-transmission system. While large central installations will require analysis to integrate them into the existing transmission infrastructure, much more work will be required to integrate solar PV into distribution feeders. Regardless of the scale of the solar PV array the individual cells produce direct current (DC) power, which must be converted to AC, via an inverter, for use with residential appliances or to feed back into H.1PDF Image | The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits
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