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J. Sheng et al. / Materials Today Nano 7 (2019) 100044 5 Fig. 3. (a) Cross-sectional morphology of the PES porous membrane prepared with different SPEEK contents. Reproduced from Xu et al. [47] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Cross-sectional morphology of the prepared membrane with the 30% phenolphthalein template. Reproduced from Chen et al [52] with permission from the Elsevier. (c) The design of the porous PES/SPEEK composite membrane. Reproduced from Li et al. [53] with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry. (d) The design of the aromatic polymer-based composite ion-exchange membrane. Reproduced from Yuan et al. [56] with permission from the Elsevier. PES, polyethersulfone; SPEEK, sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone). dominated by the solid-liquid demixing during solvent evaporation rather than the liquid-liquid phase inversion. The gradual growth of crystals in the polymer solution forms globular grains that form a nanoscale-sieved network by approaching each other. They have also shown that the increased crystallization temperature and time significantly enhance the crystallization rate because it promotes polymer segment motion that generates more a phase, and part of the b phase also converts into the a phase through rearrangements, leading to a larger grain size and smaller pore size. Owing to the high crystallinity and hydrophobicity, the PVDF- based membrane possesses outstanding thermal, mechanical, and chemical stability and higher selectivity owing to the intrinsically high resistance to the mass transfer caused by the repulsion be- tween the water molecules and hydrophobic wall surface. How- ever, this high hydrophobicity caused from the low surface energy can cause fouling owing to the strong repulsion between the PVDF and aqueous electrolytes. Therefore, several studies have been conducted to reduce the hydrophobicity of PVDF-based mem- branes. In achieving this, PVDF was grafted with various hydro- philic agents such as styrenesulfonicacid [63], sulfonated poly(ethersulfone) and TPA [64], and SPEEK [65,66] to improve proton conductivity. In addition, Zhou et al. [67] reported another interesting strategy to overcome the defects of the polymeric ma- terial by blending PVDF with ferroelectric ceramic such as bariumPDF Image | membrane for aqueous redox flow batteries
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