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J. Funct. Biomater. 2022, 13, 27 2 of 36 functionalized by other nanoparticles or functional oxygenated groups due to their special physicochemical properties and as a result have drawn extensive attention related to bio- medical applications [5,6]. The significant progress of graphene-based materials in the past decades led to the emergence of a new class of functional 2DNMs such as transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), topological insulators (TIs), phosphorene, transition metal oxides (TMOs), black phosphorus (BP), layered double hydroxides (LDHs), hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), an- timonene (AM), bismuthene, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and nitrides and car- bonitrides (MXenes) [7–10]. 2DNMs are broadly used in bioelectronics, imaging, drug de- livery, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine due to their exotic physicochemical properties, biocompatibility, biodegradability, surface functionality, and plasticity com- pared to their bulk form [2,11–13]. An extended search using the Scopus database (date of search: 20 December 2021) using keywords including transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), topological insula- tors (TIs), phosphorene, antimonene, and bismuthine (P-A-B), metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) and MXenes reveal that 2DNMS beyond graphene have attracted much attention withing the scientific communities (Figure 1). Although a major portion of the publica- tions on 2D materials is related to graphene and graphene-based materials [14–16], publi- cations on 2DNMs beyond graphene have grown significantly following the same expo- nential behavior of graphene, as the first introduced 2DNMs (Figure 1a,b). More specifi- cally MOFs, TMDs, Tis, and very recently Mxenes have shown to have great potential for future biomedical applications (Figure 1c). Statistical analysis of the published papers demonstrated that among various biomedical applications of 2DNMs beyond graphene, imaging, drug delivery, and regenerative medicine have attracted the most attention (Fig- ure 1d). Such 2DNMs have two outstanding features compared to other nanostructures: (i) the optical properties of 2DNMs can be easily controlled by changing the number of layers or combining them with other plasmonic nanoparticles; (ii) by modifying surface chemis- try of 2DNMs through functionalization, they can be used to deliver specific therapeutic drugs [17]. Furthermore, superior performances (e.g., inherent quantum effects and larger surface area) of 2DNMs compared to other conventional nanostructures made them an appropriate alternative in nanomedicine and various biomedical applications [12]. More- over, 2DNMs are known as the thinnest materials, which means they have the highest specific surface area among all available materials. On the other hand, the high specific surface area of 2DNMs makes them have large reservoirs and anchoring sites for effective loading and delivery of therapeutic agents [18]. Therefore, 2DNMs can be used in drug delivery systems due to the adsorption of large numbers of drug molecules and excellent control over release kinetics [10].PDF Image | Nanomaterials beyond Graphene for Biomedical Applications
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