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J. Funct. Biomater. 2022, 13, 27 8 of 36 Figure 7. Crystalline structure of MXene: (a) General element composition of MAX phase and MXene, (Reprinted with permission from ref. [39]. 2021, BMC); (b) MXene chemistry (Reprinted with permission from ref. [40]. 2020, Elsevier). 3. Design and Synthesis of 2D Nanomaterial The synthesis/fabrication of 2D materials can be mainly categorized as two top-down and bottom-up methods. The top-down method relies on mechanical forces to destroy the weak van der Waals interaction between layers to obtain a single or multilayer nanometer sheets, such as mechanical cleavage and liquid exfoliation [1,10,41]. In the other hand, the bottom-up methods are usually based on chemical conversion under certain conditions to form ultrathin 2DNMs, including chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and wet-chemical synthesis (e.g., hydro-/solvo-thermal, self-assembly of crystals and soft colloidal synthesis) [42,43]. However, the CVD method requires high vacuum, high temperature and special substrates. Wet-chemical synthesis is another typical bot- tom-up method that is emerging as a very promising alternative to produce ultrathin 2DNMs. Wet-chemical synthesis leads to the high-yield, low-cost and massive production of ultrathin 2D nanosheets in the solution phase, which is suitable for industrial produc- tion [44]. The wet-chemical method is under the influence of reaction parameters such as reaction temperature, reaction time, concentration of precursors and solvents. These pa- rameters are effective in controlling the size and shape of 2DNMs. Several main wet- chemical methods used for the synthesis of 2DNMs include hydro/solvothermal synthe- sis, self-assembly of nanocrystals, and soft colloidal synthesis. The process involving wa- ter or organic solvent is called a hydrothermal or a solvothermal process, respectively. In the hydro/solvent method, researchers use water or organic solvent as the reaction me- dium in a sealed vessel, in which the reaction temperature is higher than the boiling point of the solvent [45]. In the first step, the precursors are mixed in a solvent and then sealed in an autoclave. In the next step, the autoclave as a closed system is heated to a tempera- ture above the boiling point of the solvent. The autoclave enhances the temperature and pressure of the solution and leads to crystallization of the soluble material at high pres- sure. This method has been widely used to achieve high purity and homogeneously ul- trathin 2DNMs [45]. Self-assembly of nanocrystals should be considered as another effi- cient way to produce 2DNMs due to the development of synthesis technologies and sur- face modification of nanocrystals. Generally, the fusion of low-dimensional nanocrystals such as nanoparticles and nanowires during the assembly process leads to the formationPDF Image | Nanomaterials beyond Graphene for Biomedical Applications
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