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J. Funct. Biomater. 2022, 13, 27 17 of 36 in neuromuscular diagnostics and rehabilitation [92]. In the same content, Murphy and co-workers used MXene encapsulated in parylene-C gel-free in high-density EMG arrays. The impedance of electrodes in contact with human skin was recorded 100–1000 times lower than commercially available electrodes [93]. Therefore, compared with conven- tional metal nanostructures as metallic contact electrodes that need sintering and optimi- zation of a thermal treatment, 2D MXene ink displays more flexibility, electrical conduc- tivity with lower skin–electrode interface impedance and gel-free application capability which makes it a key material for future biomedical applications. 5.2. Imaging One fascinating and broad use of 2D nanomaterials is their implementation in the imaging technologies such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), X-Ray computed to- mography imaging (CT imaging), optical imaging (OI) and PA imaging for diagnosing various diseases. It is reported that among various available 2DNMS, MOFs are promising materials for imaging applications due to their unique characteristics such as diverse com- positions, high porosity, simplicity of their multifunctionalization and stability in physio- logical environments which enables their use as imaging contrast agents or imaging con- trast carriers [94,95]. Recent research has revealed that through incorporation of Fe, Mn, Gd, iron oxide and derivatives into MOFs, specific types of nanocomposites can be gen- erated that serve as contrast agents in MRIs and enhanced high-resolution MRIs. In addi- tion, encapsulating superparamagnetic NPs into the MOFs makes them an appropriate nanocomposite as contrast agents [96]. Lin and co-workers decorated MOFs with Gd3+ for image contrast enhancement. In this study, Gd(BDC)1.5(H2O)2, nanorods with 40 nm in diameter and 100 nm in length demonstrated the improvement of image contrast by in- creasing water proton relaxation rates for MRI imaging [97]. For CT imaging purposes, elements with high Z numbers such as barium, bismuth and iodine are used as contrast agents. However, many disadvantages such as large doses requirements in order to have satisfactory contrast and inadequate distribution have limited their practical applications [98]. In this regard, 2DNMs (e.g., MOF-based platforms) as next generation contrast agents can be introduced as an appropriate alternative to overcome these restrictions and con- trast enhancement. For example, Shang and co-workers synthesized Au@MIL-88(A), the core-shell gold nanorod@MOF nanoprobes via tunable growth of a MOF shell layer on the surface of gold nanorod for multimodality diagnosis of glioma. This star-like nanocom- posite with an average diameter of 89 ± 3 nm exhibited high contrast efficiency in CT im- aging as well as in MRI and PAI imaging [99]. In addition to the abovementioned bio- imaging technologies, MOFs have shown high potential in the optical imaging field and there has been extensive research to fabricate MOFs with sufficient luminescence as bio- imaging agents. Lin and co-workers designed the phosphorescent MOF by [Ru{5,5′- (CO2)2-bpy}(bpy)2] as a bridging ligand (bpy is 2,2′-bipyridine) and Zn2+ or Zr4+ as connect- ing points in which the zirconium MOF coated by silica and functionalized with PEG, targeted the cancer cells for in vitro optical imaging. Their findings show that the prepared nanocomposite is an efficient contrast optical imaging agent with extremely high dye loadings suitable for optical imaging [100]. Another fascinating 2D nanoplatform which has drawn considerable attention in bi- omedical applications is TMDs. Considering intriguing attributes such as relatively large surface-to-volume ratio allowing maximal interaction with target biomaterial and conse- quently enhanced efficiency and sensitivity, high stability in different environments, low toxicity, nonhazardous nature and desirable optical properties, TMDs are reported as a novel material for biomedical technologies [101]. Strong NIR absorbance, noticeable rate of light-to-heat transformation and the next generation of ultrasound signal meet require- ments for application in PA imaging [102]. Chen and co-workers synthesized TMD-based nanosheets with different layers (single-layer (S-MoS2), few-layer (F-MoS2) and multi- layer (M-MoS2)) using albumin-assisted exfoliation without further surface modifications with potential application in PA imaging [103]. It is reported that the number of layers inPDF Image | Nanomaterials beyond Graphene for Biomedical Applications
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