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357 the same time, a consciousness grew that there are limits to the world’s energy resources and that a more thoughtful stewardship of them would be prudent, when it is economically attractive. However, in the early 1970s the OPEC oil embargo brought these notions into clearer focus, and federal legislation in 1978 brought cogeneration to everyone’s attention with the enactment of PURPA, the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (ref. 14). PURPA, a part of the National Energy Act, was intended to bring competition into the electric power generation business and to increase the national effectiveness of energy utilization by making cogeneration more economically attractive. It required that utilities purchase power from qualified cogenerators at a reasonable price, created tax incentives for developers, and established the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, FERC, to regulate and administer the activity. Prospective cogenerators must apply to the FERC for certification as a qualified facility, QF. The FERC, however, left the deliberation of what constitutes a fair price to state public utility commissions. As a result, industrial cogeneration thrives in some states and is virtually nonexistent and others. PURPA requires utilities to buy electricity from QFs at the marginal cost of new generation, that is, the cost of electricity generated by new power plant if it were built, the so-called avoided cost. The growth of cogeneration, state and national actions to change the regulatory structure of the electric utility industry, the difficulties of acquiring capital for large, long-term projects and other uncertainties are significantly changing the outlook and structure of the utility industry (ref. 21). Utilities now appear to be looking toward incremental and modular growth and the avoidance of long-term commitment, which is reflected in their reluctance or inability to undertake the construction of large, capital-intensive base-load plants. Legislative changes in the 1990's and beyond are bringing substantial deregulation to the industry, open access to power transmission systems, and the introduction of merchant plants created to offer electricity to the highest bidder in the new free-enterprise climate (ref. 66). 9.8 Steam-Injected Gas Turbines Water injection has been used for many years for brief augmentation of the thrust of jet engines. More recently, liquid water injection and steam injection have been used to control the formation of NOx in gas turbines. Injection of water or steam into the combustion chamber reduces the combustion temperature, which in turn suppresses the formation of NOx caused by high temperature. Power output is maintained or increased because the injection increases both the turbine mass flow and the energy extraction by the turbine. The latter is possible because the heat capacity of steam is almost twice that of normal combustion products. Thus the enthalpy change of steam for a given temperature drop is about double that of air or combustion gas. If water is injected as a liquid, additional energy must be extracted from the combustion gas to vaporize the water.PDF Image | Advanced Systems Steam Power Plant
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