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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8 3781 costs account for 20% to as high as 50% of the direct operating cost of aircraft, both manufacturers and airlines are highly interested in fuel-saving technologies that reduce their operating cost. The second type of driver is the current movement on global climate change and sustainability. Over the past 10 years, the aviation sector has received attention regarding the jet emissions’ potential impact on global warming and local atmosphere [19]. As sustainability has become a major issue for the aviation sector, both aircraft manufacturers and airlines are focused on technological and operational means to mitigate aviation’s climate impact. The third type of innovation driver for aircraft performance is social demand. Aircraft noise was known to cause hearing impairment in the 1960s and public demand for quieter aircraft accumulated over time. Governments responded by phasing out noisy aircraft and eventually today’s aircraft are several times quieter than earlier jet aircraft [20]. On the contrary, aircraft fuel economy, which is a surrogate measure of jet engine emissions (mostly CO2), improved slowly during the same period. One factor for this phenomenon is the low level of social awareness on aviation and climate issues [21]. The next subsections examine these drivers in detail. Then the question of why aircraft technological innovation is slow is analyzed in the subsequent section. 3.1. Economic Driver: Fuel Cost–Passenger Volume Relationship Historically, fuel cost has been the main driver for improvements in aircraft fuel efficiency. Note that fuel efficiency in itself is not a goal of aircraft design but a means to achieve other targets like speed, payload-range, landing/takeoff performance. Fuel efficiency gain was strongest during the 1960s when oil prices make up a large portion of airlines’ direct operating cost [6,16]. When oil prices soar, airlines actively adopt advanced aircraft with greatly improved fuel economy. Note that there are other important reasons for the aircraft designers to develop fuel efficient aircraft regardless of fuel costs. Fuel efficiency has a strong impact on major design objectives like payload-range performance and landing takeoff performance of an aircraft. Every 100 kg of fuel saved may add an extra passenger on a given weight-limited range. Also ‘hot and high’ airfields limit takeoff weight for specific flight-legs and every kg of fuel saved helps to reduce such constraints. This is a fundamental difference with cars, ships and trains, where weight and volume are constraining the design to a significantly less extend. These cause aircraft designers to have a focus on fuel efficiency, even when fuel prices are expected to be low in the future. To understand how increased oil prices impacted airfares and subsequent air travel, Figure 2 shows a historical trend in airfares since 1965. The first oil shock did not cause airfares to go up since the airline industry was still regulated [22]. The second oil shock’s impact is clearly seen by the jump in airfares. Deregulation took place in 1978, after which airlines could charge fares of their own and decide schedules and routes by maximizing profits. Thus, the second oil shock caused airfares to jump up, the rate of which was greater than that of inflation [23]. The jump in fares after deregulation was not only because of the high oil prices, evidenced by the fact that fares stayed high afterwards. It had a lot to do with deregulation itself as airlines could now set their own fares, and could charge what the market would pay, which was apparently higher than the regulated fares.PDF Image | Analysis of Technological Innovation and Environmental Performance Improvement in Aviation Sector
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