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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8 3789 must be produced from oils that do not incur land-use changes, either directly or indirectly, that cause a large release of other GHGs. This constraint places a severe limit on the amount of climate-friendly HRJ that can be produced within the next decade. For FT jet fuels to be effective agents for GHG reduction, they must be produced from biomass or a combination of coal and biomass. In the former case, the fuels will be expensive and demand extensive cultivation of biomass for inputs. In the latter case, capture and sequestration of plant-site carbon emissions would be required, but overall costs would be much less, as would biomass consumption. As with HRJ, the provision of biomass must not incur land-use changes, either directly or indirectly, that cause a large release of GHGs [41]. The aviation industry is therefore interested in developing fuels that can be mass produced at a low cost and high yield with minimal environmental impact. The extensive use of first-generation feedstocks will incur land-use changes that will cause a large increase in GHG emissions. Next-generation biomass feedstocks are needed that do not compete with food production and that consume little fresh water. “Second-generation” biofuels should be made from crops that are fast growing plants that do not take up productive arable land; do not require excessive farming techniques or threaten biodiversity; provide socio-economic value to local communities and importantly result in a lower carbon footprint. They include bio-derived oil, sourced from feedstocks such as jatropha, camelina, algae and halophytes, which can be mass grown in locations almost worldwide, including in deserts and salt water [28]. These biofuels are still anticipated to provide an estimated 80% reduction in overall CO2 lifecycle emissions compared to fossil fuels. For example, analysis of camelina feedstock use for aviation has shown even better results, with an 84% reduction in lifecycle emissions. Furthermore, biofuels contain fewer impurities (such as sulphur), which enables an even greater reduction in sulphur dioxide and soot emissions than present technology has achieved [28]. The target is to certify aviation biofuels by 2013, although there is now a possibility that a 50/50 blend of biofuels mixed with Jet A-1 fuel could be certified in the next year. Due to recent advances in research and technology, aviation biofuel might be available for commercial use within five years, once the feedstock production process has been set in motion [28]. Beyond the evolution of the current aircraft platform, hydrogen has been proposed as an alternative fuel for future low-emission aircraft [43]. Hydrogen-fueled engines generate no CO2 emissions at the point of use, may reduce NOX emissions, and greatly diminish emissions of particulate matter. However, hydrogen-fueled engines would replace CO2 emissions from aircraft with a three-fold increase in emissions of water vapor [44,45]. In addition, there are several issues that must be resolved before a new fuel base is substituted for the existing kerosene infrastructure. While liquid hydrogen (LH2) can be used as a direct fuel in a combustion engine or it can be used for fuel cells to create electricity, it will require significant amounts of energy for its creation and storage [13]. The industry needs to overcome significant technical challenges in designing a hydrogen-powered aircraft for commercial aviation and in producing enough hydrogen in a sustainable way to supply the industry’s needs [28]. The usefulness of such alternative fuels requires a balanced consideration of many factors, such as safety, energy density, availability, cost, and indirect impacts through production. Some experts believe nuclear-powered or solar passenger aircraft are the option to propel future air transport systems. However, this will require a major research program to help the aviation industry convert from fossil fuels to such radically different energy [46,47].PDF Image | Analysis of Technological Innovation and Environmental Performance Improvement in Aviation Sector
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