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plant, and the combined energy plant-process plant application through CHP. For these reasons, steam turbines are not normally direct competitors of gas turbines and reciprocating engines. Steam turbine prices vary greatly with the extent of competition and related manufacturing volumes for units of desired size, inlet and exit steam conditions, rotational speed and standardization of construction. Prices are usually quoted for an assembled steam turbine-electrical generator package. The electrical generator can account for 20 percent to 40 percent of the assembly. As the steam turbine/electrical generator package is heavy, due in large part to the heavy walled construction of the high pressure turbine casing, it must be mounted carefully on an appropriate pedestal or baseplate. The installation and connection to the boiler through high pressure-high temperature steam pipes must be performed with engineering and installation expertise. As the high pressure steam pipes typically vary in temperature by 750° F between cold standby/repair status and full power status, care must be taken in installing a means to accommodate the differential expansion accompanying startup and shutdown to minimize induced stress on the turbine casing. Should the turbine have variable extraction, the cost of the extraction valve and control system adds to the installation. Small steam turbine generators of less than 1,000 kW are generally more expensive on a per KW basis. However, products have been developed and are being marketed specifically for small market applications. As the steam for a steam turbine is generated in a boiler by combustion and heat transfer, the temperature of the steam is limited by furnace heat transfer design and manufacturing consideration and boiler tube bundle design. Higher heat fluxes in the boiler enable more compact boilers, with less boiler tube material to be built, however, higher heat fluxes also result in higher boiler tube temperature and the need for the use of a higher grade (adequate strength at higher temperature) boiler tube material. Such engineering economic tradeoffs between temperature (with consequential increases in efficiency) and cost appear throughout the steam plant. 4.4.4 Maintenance Steam turbines are very rugged units, with operational life often exceeding 50 years. Maintenance is simple, comprised mainly of making sure that all fluids (steam flowing through the turbine and the oil for the bearing) are always clean and at the proper temperature with low levels of moisture or high steam quality or superheat. The oil lubrication system must be clean and at the correct operating temperature and level to maintain proper performance. Other items include inspecting auxiliaries such as lubricating-oil pumps, coolers and oil strainers and checking safety devices such as the operation of overspeed trips. In order to obtain reliable service, steam turbines require long warm-up periods so that there are minimal thermal expansion stress and wear concerns. Steam turbine maintenance costs are typically below $0.01/kWh. Boilers and any associated solid fuel processing and handling equipment that is part of the boiler/steam turbine plant require their own types of maintenance which can add $0.02/kWh for maintenance and $0.015/kWh for operating labor. One maintenance issue with steam turbines is that solids can carry over from the boiler and deposit on turbine nozzles and other internal parts, degrading turbine efficiency and power output. Some of these Catalog of CHP Technologies 4–14 Steam TurbinesPDF Image | EPA CHP Technologies Combustion Turbines Section 4
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