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6 Introduction 1.3 Friction is due to nanocontacts Coulomb’s law of friction states that the friction force F is proportional to the per- pendicular normal loading force N: F = μN, (1.4) where μ is the coefficient of friction and N is the loading force [13]. Surprisingly, the coefficient of friction is independent of contact area, surface roughness, and slid- ing velocity. The correct explanation of why friction is independent of contact area was not understood until around 1940 when Bowden and Tabor [14] pointed out that the real contact area is due to asperities, or nanocontacts, and it is the adhesion forces of this real contact area that is of importance. Such small contacts can be elas- tically or plastically deformed and by increasing the loading force the contact area will increase, explaining the loading dependency and at the same time the appar- ent contact-area independence of the Coulomb’s friction law. In 1987 the newly in- vented scanning tunnelling microscopes (STM) and atomic force microscopes (AFM) allowed studies of single nanocontacts making further progress possible. The veloc- ity independence is perplexing since according to Stokes law the friction force of a particle in a fluid is proportional to the velocity of the particle. This problem was solved when it was understood that at the nanocontacts during sliding, there are very rapid processes occurring that are independent of the macroscopic speed [13]. Figure 1.4: The friction force F is proportional to the normal force N due to an increase of contact area as the normal force increase.PDF Image | Nanomechanics Quantum Size Effects, Contacts, and Triboelectricity
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