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they could remain in the air until they ran out of gas—a period of over 30 min. For the next 3 years the Wright brothers stopped flying and concentrated on develop- ing engines and securing patents. Wright flyer. By 1911 the Europeans, some of whom did not honor the Wrights’ patents, had made a number of advances in aircraft design and developed many new aircraft. They found tractor propellers (front mount- ed) to be more efficient than pusher propellers. They tried 4-, 8-, and 12-cylinder engines as well as 3- and 5-cylinder rotary engines. Propellers with two, three, and four blades were also tried as well as propellers with variable pitch, but most engines of the day were only powerful enough to drive two-blade propellers. Planes were able to fly over 1100 mi in distance and above 13,000 ft in altitude, and they could stay aloft for over 28 hours (hr). In 1913 Igor Sikorsky developed the first four engine aircraft that could carry 13 passengers. It would eventually create 600 hp and be used as a bomber in World War I. In January of 1914 he flew it from St. Petersburg to Kiev and back, a distance of 1600 mi. The war accelerated aircraft development among the European powers until by 1918 aircraft had reached speeds of up to 140 mph and effective altitudes (op- erating ceilings) of over 20,000 ft. The British Sopwith Dolphin carried a 300-hp Hispano-Suiza engine, while deHaviland was using a 400-hp American-made Lib- erty engine in its DH–4 aircraft. The years after the war saw a number of young former military pilots looking to replace the thrill of combat flying. Some became barnstormers and mem- bers of aerial “circuses” while others got involved in air races. The races, especially the Schneider Cup sea- Sikorsky’s four-engine aircraft. plane trophy races, led various countries to accelerate the development of improved aircraft, particularly in the area of propulsion. Superchargers, which increased the pressure of the air entering the engine cylinders, first showed up in 1919 and greatly increased performance at higher altitudes. These were both mechanical and turbo powered. Another significant development was an engine block with built-in water cooling rather than exterior tube cooling. This improved the power-to- weight ratio from 1:2 down to 1:1.5, resulting in lighter, more powerful engines. Advances were made in air-cooled radial engines, which had a much better weight-to-horsepower ratio than in-line engines. The development of the Nation- al Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) cowl helped to eliminate the drag caused by the large fron- tal area of a radial engine. Propellers were designed with controlled pitch and constant speed gearing to get maximum power under different load conditions: high-revolutions-per-minute (rpm) fine pitch at takeoff and low-rpm coarse pitch at cruise conditions. By the end of the World War II, speeds of 440 mph and operation ceilings of 42,000 ft had been reached with piston-driven engines, producing up to 2200 hp. P–51 Mustang. History of Aviation Propulsion Pushing the Envelope: A NASA Guide to Engines 7 INTRODUCTIONPDF Image | NASA Guide to Engines
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