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The current, voltage, and power density output (with p-type Si, 2.5–4 U cm) versus electrical load resistance Rload is shown in Figures 4D–4F. To model the tribo- photovoltaic generator, a classic equivalent circuit of a solar cell is applied, considering the d.c. generation characteristics in the MIS diode system.34 It con- sists of a current source, a diode, and two resistors as shown in Figure 4D: The current source IL represents charge carrier generation caused by incident radiation and frictional excitation. The shunt diode represents recombination of these charge carriers at a forward-bias voltage V + I$Rs. The shunt resistor Rsh signifies high current paths through the semiconductor along mechanical defects and ma- terial dislocations. The series resistor Rs embodies internal resistance Rinter, primar- ily at the interface of the semiconductor and the metal contacts, and the external electric load Rload: Rs = Rload + Rinter. A current balance at a point to the left of Rs results in I = IL ID Ish: (Equation 3) Substituting in Ohm’s law and the Shockley diode equation for the currents through the resistors and diode, respectively, yields the model characteristic equa- tion, given by34 I = I I enðV+IRsÞ=VT 1V+IRs : (Equation 4) L0 Rsh The variable I0 is the reverse-bias saturation current, n is the diode ideality factor, VT is the thermal voltage ($25 mV at 298 K): VT = kT : (Equation 5) q k is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the cell temperature, and q is the charge of an electron. Experimentally, the tribo-photovoltaic current output I was measured as a function of Rload. Figure 4D shows that the prediction from Equation 4 is in good agreement with the I versus Rload data. The maximum power density output is found to be enhanced from 0.5 W/m2 (tribo-tunneling) to 13.8 W/m2 (tribo-photovoltaic) under the illumination of $900 W/m2 (Figure 4F). The parameter of fill factor (FF), defined as the ratio of the maximum power to the product of VOC and ISC in a solar cell, is adopted to characterize the quality of power generation in the tribo-photovoltaic power generator system35: FF=Pmax=ðISCVOCÞ: (Equation 6) Accordingly, the calculated values of FF are $0.13 and 0.20 for the tribo-tunneling output and tribo-photovoltaic output, respectively. The point-plane configuration can enhance the J output but may bring a relatively large contact resistance of the system and hence affect FF. Theoretically, the efficiency of the solar-electricity con- version with the current configuration reached $8% using Jmax = 190 A/m2, VOC = 0.6 V, and FF = 1 under 900 W/m2. The future optimization of the materials, contact, and device fabrication would further enhance the Pmax, FF, and thus the energy con- version efficiency. ITO/Si-Based Tribo-Photovoltaic Generator Prototype Furthermore, to demonstrate the feasibility of scaling up the application, a proto- type was developed with plane-plane configuration using indium tin oxide (ITO)- coated glass as the moving electrode and a Si wafer as the semiconductor compo- nent (Figure 5A). The good conductivity (8–12 U/sq) and transparency of ITO 656 Matter 1, 650–660, September 4, 2019PDF Image | Separation and Quantum Tunneling of Photo- generated Carriers Using a Tribo-Induced Field Boosting
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