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Stefan Frei, Urban Mäder - Case Study 2006 Technology and Inovation In the 70ies, engine design matured; innovation became more subtle. Efficiency and performance of turbofans are mainly governed by two main factors: 1. Combustion temperature and overall compression (i.e. air pressure before the combustion chamber). The higher, the more efficient the thermodynamic combustion process. Combustion is mainly limited by available material technology, since turbine and engine casing must be able to withstand these conditions. Also, cooling techniques are applied to remedy for this. 2. Bypass ratio. By increasing the ratio, thrust (and efficiency) is increased. However, as with propellers, the blade tips must rotate with subsonic velocities. Hence, the diameter cannot be increased arbitrarily. Hence, there are two fundamental technological limits for jet engines; one being defined by the second law of thermodynamics, the other by the trade-off between high velocity / low thrust and low velocity / high thrust. Both limits are not “absolute”. For instance, there is no absolute maximum temperature for the combustion chamber. The discovery of new materials and the invention of better cooling mechanisms will allow to increase efficiency further. 4. Assessment of Technology Speed It is difficult to assess the technology level of jet engines directly, as too little information is available for comparison. Furthermore, it is not easy to extrapolate data of a single engine – probably from ground tests – to performance in an actual airplane. Moreover, it is unclear how to compare older turbojet- to modern turbofan engines, or small- to large ones directly. We thus decided to employ an indirect measure: airplane efficiency. Though engines are not the only parts to influence airplane performance, they are the most important one. In [4], 69% of improvements between 1960 and 2000 are accredited to the engines, only 27% to aerodynamic improvements. The performance measure chosen is fuel needed per range payload, or APK (available payload kilometre). That is, how many kilograms of fuel does a specific plane take to move one kilogram of payload for one kilometre. This value can be calculated for many airplanes from freely available performance charts of the Aircraft Operations Manual (AOM). However, this measure is typically not constant for every configuration of fuel, payload and range. For instance, Figure 2 shows a typical payload / range diagram. The diagram shows the attainable range of a Boeing 707 for any combination of payload and fuel. Note that the feasible area is bounded by various constraints, such as maximum structural payload, maximum fuel and maximum takeoff weight. 3PDF Image | Technology Speed of Civil Jet Engines
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