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Sorbitol Sorbitol is produced on large industrial scale by catalytic hydrogenation of glucose. It is a batch process with a production volume of 1.1 Mton/year (Patel 2006). Further development could be the industrial implementation of a continuous process. Other research routes include the development of milder processing conditions and/or other catalysts to replace the nickel catalysts that are used nowadays. Fermentative routes are also suggested (107) but are unlikely that these routes can replace the technically mature catalytic hydrogenation process. Besides food, sorbitol is also the raw material for other products such as surfactants and polyurethanes (Woodbridge Foams). Sorbitol can also be further derivatised into ascorbic acid (80.000 ton/y by combined biotechnological/chemical process), Sorbitan (50.000 ton/y), Isosorbide (selective dehydration) and 1,2- propanediol by hydrogenolysis (900.000 ton/y) (118). Isosorbide (Roquette) Isosorbide is a diol obtained by dehydration of sorbitol, (a derivative of glucose), -for which Roquette is the leading world producer. Isosorbide is used for the manufacture of specialty polymers in the polyester (f.i. PET-like polymers), polycarbonate and polyurethane families. Thanks to its rigid structure, isosorbide is the only biobased diol that improves resistance to heat, UV rays and chemicals, and offers excellent optical and mechanical properties on the materials produced. Roquette announced that its production capacity of isosorbide located in Lestrem (France) will attain several thousand tonnes by the beginning of 2011, at the “Bio-Based Chemicals East” congress in Boston, MA, on 13 September 2010. Roquette is consolidating its position as world leader for Isosorbide, a biobased intermediate for new polymers and plasticizers. http://www.roquette.com Lysine Production of nitrogen-containing bulk chemicals from biomass is in a less advanced state compared to oxygenated bulk chemicals such as glycols. Biobased routes from lysine to caprolactam for the production of nylon have perhaps received the most attention (91 - Haveren, Scott et al. 2008). In the 1950s fermentation with Corynebacterium glutamicum was found to be a very efficient production route to L-glutamic acid. Since this time biotechnological processes with bacteria of the species Corynebacterium developed to be among the most important in terms of tonnage and economical value. L-lysine is a bulk product nowadays with a production volume of 640 kton/y (118) and a cost price of 1200 €/ton. Other routes that are currently under investigation are the development of genetically modified plants with elevated levels of certain amino acids such as lysine. In this way amino acids that are naturally produced by plants can be produced at higher concentration levels by over- expression of certain structural genes. Adipic acid Adipic acid (hexanedioic acid or 1,4-butanedicarboxylic acid) is the most important aliphatic dicarboxylic acid, a white crystalline powder. It is primarily used for the production of nylon 6,6. The current market for adipic acid is close to 3 million tons per year, worth approximately $8 billion at current market prices. Within the Brew-report several fossil-based processes for the production of adipic acid are described, whereas only one process involves a biomass substrate (14). This is the biosynthesis of cis,cis-muconic acid by fermentation of glucose, followed by catalytic hydrogenation to adipic acid. Besides optimization of production organisms, the recovery of adipic acid from aqueous medium at purity levels needed for polymer- grade products and catalytic conversion of muconic acid to adipic acid needs to be further investigated (14). Since then several companies have claimed processes for adipic acid. Verdezyne, Inc., a privately-held synthetic biology company developing processes for renewable chemicals and fuels, announced they are developing a new fermentation process for the production of adipic acid. This company achieved proof of concept by demonstrating production and recovery of adipic acid by a yeast microorganism from an alkane feedstock. Using proprietary technologies, Verdezyne discovered and is engineering a proprietary metabolic pathway that can utilize carbohydrates, plant-based oils or alkanes (108). BioAmber, one of the market leaders in biobased succinic acid, has entered into an exclusive licensing agreement with Celexion LLC for technology related to the production of adipic acid and other chemical intermediates (109). Also Genomatica has entered the adipic acid arena. A recent patent, number 7,799,545, entitled "Microorganisms for the production of adipic acid and other compounds," describes how to produce a "green" version of key intermediate chemicals used to produce nylon, utilising renewable feedstocks such as commercially-available carbohydrates, instead of crude oil or natural gas. These organisms directly produce adipic acid and 6-aminocaproic acid (6-ACA), which can be used to produce nylon 6,6 and nylon 6, respectively (110). Rennovia (Menlo Park, CA), an early-stage start up founded by researchers at Symyx Technologies, is developing a chemo-catalytic process for production of adipic acid from renewable raw materials (106). Glucaric acid Rivertop has developed a catalytic oxidation to make glucaric acid from glucose. The company claims that while the current market for glucaric acid is very minor, it has huge potential. Rivertop is initially marketing glucaric as a drop-in replacement for phosphates in detergents, a '10 billion market. The U.S. banned phosphates in automatic dishwasher detergents last year, and earlier this month the European Commission proposed restricting phosphates and phosphorus· containing compounds In all domestic laundry detergents across the European Union. Phosphates are blamed for stimulating algae growth, which In turn reduces oxygen supply for other aquatic life. Glucaric acid also has corrosion inhibition properties and Rivertop expects to build a market presence in applications such as cooling towers and boilers. Glucaric acid can also be polymerized, although commercializing a polymer is probably 5-7 years away. Rivertop aims to have a commercial plant on the order of 60 million lbs/year operational by 2013. Other C6 based building blocks Several other C6 based building blocks are currently used at scales around 100 kton/year and up. Important examples are ascorbic acid (formed by combined biotechnological/chemical process), sorbitan (formed by dehydration of sorbitol), and phenols (from lignin). 24PDF Image | Bio-based Chemicals Value Added Products from Biorefineries
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