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ties of renewable energy are available for decarbonising other industrial sec- tors. Ultimately, the critical element here is that national and global climate action goals are met in order to curtail drastic and hugely expensive changes to the environment. 2.1.3.3 Sector coupling as a grid expansion back-up option The delay in grid expansion (see Section 2.1.3.2) is not only hampering further growth in the production of renewables, it is also driving up ener- gy system costs, particularly by raising grid usage charges. The lack of grid infrastructure has led to a significant increase in electricity from renewable sources being discarded as a result of feed-in management interventions. Despite restricting feed-in from renewable sources, the RE plant operators are paid as if the electricity had in fact been fed in to the grid and used. In 2010, the amount of energy lost due to discarded RES-E was 127 GWh; in 2015 this had increased more than thirty-fold. The increase in compensation payments during this same period was even higher, rising by a factor of 47. This development is depicted graphically in Figure 57. Other costs passed on to the consumer via grid charges are redispatch costs. The term ‘redispatch’ is used to mean the throttling of feed-in at one end of an overloaded network and simultaneously ordering power plants to produce more electricity at the other end. Redispatch measures are used to overcome bottlenecks in the grid. However, compensation has to paid not only to the power plant operator whose facility is being temporarily shut down, but also to the producer being ordered to generate extra power. Fig. 58: Development of redispatch inter- ventions in Germany. The figure shows the costs of redispatch, the quantity of energy involved and the cumulative annual duration of such interventions. (Source: compiled by the authors using data from [19–29]) CHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE Duration of redispatch measures in h Redispatch costs in € million Energy quantity Redispatch in GWh Year 121 Duration of Redispacht measures in h Costs of Redispatch measures in Mio. €PDF Image | Chemical Processes and Use of CO2
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