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Sustain. Chem. 2021, 2 291 An intensive search has been occurring for glycerol valorization routes. The use of refined and crude glycerol has been reported for the production of biofuels, such as hydrogen, ethanol, and methanol [16,37,39]; fuel additives, such as glycerol ethers, esters, and formal (mix of solketal and acetal) [16,19,40]; and as a precursor for several other chemicals that can compete with petroleum products [15,18,37,39]. A noteworthy alternative for the valorization of glycerol is its conversion through biotechnological processes, such as fermentation and anaerobic digestion, because of their capacity to absorb crude glycerol. The literature is substantial in fermentation processes with different types of microorganisms that can generate hydrogen, methane, ethanol, and numerous other chemicals [16,20,39]. 3. Solketal 3.1. Solketal Properties Solketal (CAS 100–79–8) has low viscosity at room temperature (~11 cP) and freezing, boiling, and flash points of about −26 ◦C, 190 ◦C, and 80 ◦C, respectively. The density is 1.06 g/cm3 and the vapor pressure is 107.32 mmHg. It has low toxicity, slight odor, and it is non-irritant for humans; due to these characteristics and to the renewable origin, it is considered an environmentally friendly substance. It is completely miscible in water and in most organic compounds, which endows its solvent capacity [41,42]. 3.2. Solketal Uses Owing to the high compatibility and miscibility of solketal, the major application is as a solvent in resins, paints coatings, and cleaning agents, also because it can influence film-formation and drying time [41]. Its low toxicity and solubility in body fluids enable it to be used also as a solvent in medicaments (i.e., driving agent), and as a precursor of other chemicals of medical interest [43]. Nevertheless, the most-studied solketal application is as fuel additive. Malero et al. studied the benefits of adding oxygenated compounds in biodiesel and if the blends would be under the EN 14214 standard. Solketal has the positive effect of diminishing biodiesel viscosity and the negative effect of increasing fuel density, fundamental properties for the correct operation of the engine. Because of the amount of saturated fat in biodiesel, it presents poor cold properties, a problem proved to be aided by the addition of solketal in the fuel [44]. Giraldo et al. also attested the positive effect of using this ketal on diminishing the cloud point (the temperature at which wax crystals begin to form) and pour point (the temperature at which the fuel no longer flows) [32]. Another parameter analyzed was the flash point (“the lowest temperature at which a volatile substance evaporates to form an ignitable mixture with air in the presence of an igneous source,” according to Isac-García et al.), in which the addition of solketal decreased the properties’ value [44,45]. Conversely, Alptekin registered higher flash point of the biodiesel blend and higher brake specific fuel consumption (measure of the fuel efficiency— rate of fuel consumption divided by the power produced) due to the low energetic efficiency of solketal. Despite that, CO2, CO, and THC (total hydrocarbon) emissions were lower [46]. Mota et al. tested the addition of solketal in gasoline and concluded that it improved octane number and reduced gum formation, results confirmed by Ilgen et al. [19,47]. 4. Solketal Synthesis The ketalization reaction between acetone and glycerol is a process that adheres to the Green Chemistry principles because it is a condensation reaction, an example of atom economy, and it is a catalytic conversion [2,48]. According to Anastas and Warner, catalysis can improve energy efficiency, avoid the use of reactants in great excess, and enhance product selectivity [2]. The reaction produces two ketal species, one five-membered ring (solketal) and one six-membered ring (5-hydroxy-2,2–dimethyl–1,3–dioxane), with much higher selectivity for the first compound (99:1 molar ratio in recent studies), further ex- plained by the mechanism of the reaction described in Section 4.2.2 [10,48]. The reactionPDF Image | Continuous Valorization of Glycerol into Solketal
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