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Energies 2021, 14, 2406 3 of 26 Figure 2. Analysis of life-cycle of CO2 with capture and storage, and capture and utilization from main sources pathways (based on Sekera and Lichtenberger [12] and Bui et al. [13]). Broadly recognized as having an enormous potential to meet climate change targets, CCS and CCUS appear as solutions to deliver low carbon heat and power, decarbonize the industry, and, more recently, facilitate the net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere [14]. This article aims to review the overall CCS and CCUS strategies implemented to fulfil the climate change ambition established in the Paris Agreement of 2015. The approach to obtain a climate-neutral–an economy with net-zero greenhouse gas emissions-implies large changes in all the economic sectors, as well as energy, transport, industry, and agriculture. First, the values of actual CO2 emissions are presented, and it is analyzed the impact of COVID-19 in the first quarter of 2020. After that, Carbon Capture and Storage and Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage strategies to combat CO2 emissions are described. CO2 capture technologies, classified into three groups, precombustion, oxy-fuel and post- combustion systems, are presented as well as the leading technologies used for CO2 capture. CCUS’s current development, focusing on the facilities and projects working in Europe, is presented. Two commonly used technologies of climate-positive solutions are briefly described, which are bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) and direct air capture (DAC). In conclusion, the future of industrial processes, that use fossil fuels as raw materials and release CO2 emissions, is analyzed. 2. CO2 Emissions In 2019, global energy-related CO2 emissions reached 33 gigatonnes (Gt), approxi- mately [15]. This resulted mainly from a sharp decline in CO2 emissions from the power sector in advanced economies (Australia, Canada, Chile, European Union, Iceland, Israel, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Norway, New Zealand, Switzerland, Turkey, and United States.), because of the expanding role of renewable sources (mainly wind and solar photovoltaic systems), fuel switching from coal to natural gas, and higher nuclear power output. How- ever, the total emissions, in the rest of the world, increased. Figure 3 shows the gigatonnes of CO2 emitted by developed countries, the rest of the world, and total emissions from 1990 until 2019 [16]. Figure 4 shows the global greenhouse gas emissions (%) by sector in 2020 [16]. The economic sector which had the highest share of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels and cement was the power sector. With a 44% of emissions, this was more than the combined share of both industry and surface transport. These three sectors of the economy make up the majority of the world’s CO2 emissions. Covid-19 had an enormous impact on energy demand and, therefore, on CO2 emis- sions. The drastic curtailment of global economic activity and mobility during the first quarter of 2020 pushed down global energy demand by about 3.8% compared with the first quarter of 2019 [15]. CO2 emissions were about 5% lower in Q1 2020 than in Q1 2019, almost twice as large as all previous declines since the end of World War II. By sectors, emissions from coal, oil, and natural gas declined about 8, 4.5, and 2.3%, respectively. ByPDF Image | Current Developments of Carbon Capture Storage
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