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Energies 2021, 14, 2406 7 of 26 The WGS reaction is the desired route for industrial applications, most commonly in conjunction with the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reaction to synthesize hydrocarbon fuels from syngas. The conditions used for the FT reaction lie in the range of 200–375 ◦C; lower temperatures for long-chain alkanes and higher temperatures for shorter [32]. When compared with post-combustion process, CO2 presents a higher concentration in the pre-combustion gas stream (>20% in the H2 + CO2 stream vs. 5–15% in a post- combustion flue gas stream). Then, CO2/H2 separation is somewhat more straightforward than the CO2/N2 separation in the post-combustion process due to the difference in molecular weights and molecular kinetic diameters [33]. CO2 and H2 can be separated using several technologies. Solvent-based CO2 capture can be applied by chemical or physical (such as the Selexol and Fluor processes) absorp- tion of CO2 from syngas into a liquid carrier and regenerating the absorption liquid by increasing the temperature or reducing the pressure to break the absorbent-CO2 bond [34]. Sorbent, membrane, and hybrid systems that combine attributes from multiple technolo- gies are under investigation to reduce costs and energy penalties, as well as, to improve performance [35]. 3.2. Oxy-Combustion The oxy-combustion processes were designed to remove the bulk nitrogen from the air before combustion. A combination of oxygen (95% of purity, approximately) and recycled flue gas is used for the fuel combustion. A mixture with CO2 and H2O is generated by recycling the flue gas, and this mixture is ready for sequestration without stripping of the CO2 from the gas stream [36]. The flame temperature is controlled by the amount of recycled flue gas. No chemical solvent or physical sorbent is required to separate CO2 from the flue gas due to the high concentration in the stream. The carbon dioxide rich flue gas would then be delivered by pipeline to be sequestered. This system was developed as an alternative to the more conventional post-combustion process in coal-fired power plants. The main reason is the reduced cost of oxy-combustion when compared with post-combustion. However, although good results were obtained in laboratory scale and pilot plants, commercial plants use is still scarce [3]. 3.3. Post-Combustion Post-combustion CO2 capture systems have been used for many decades, and in this process, the CO2 is captured from the products of burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, or oil) or combustion exhaust gases. The flue gas passes through a liquid solvent, solid adsorbent, membrane, or another medium, depending on the method/technology, allowing the separation of the CO2 from the mixture. After that, CO2 can be transported and stored. The drawback of post-combustion carbon capture is the low carbon dioxide concen- tration in the flue gases, which leads to a relatively high energy penalty and high costs of carbon capture. On the other hand, pre-combustion strives to reduce these penalties by de- carbonizing the process stream before combustion, resulting in more favorable conditions and more flexible implementation, significantly reducing capture costs [37]. Several technologies can be applied for separating or capturing CO2 from a mixture of gases in an industrial process. The purification step and the technical approach used depend on the gas stream conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and concentration, and on the product purity required. The captured and purified gas will be transported to its final destination. In the case of CCS, a pipeline is necessary to transport captured CO2 for a storage site. When CCU is applied, a spur on the pipeline can take a slipstream from the main flow to be diverted to the chemicals or synthetic fuels plant. At the end of the supply chain, a minor quantity of CO2 could still be emitted or stored [38].PDF Image | Current Developments of Carbon Capture Storage
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