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Energies 2021, 14, 2406 14 of 26 • • • Economic: high investment, high operational costs, lack of competitiveness compared with other low carbon technologies; no financial compensation for the additional capital and operating costs associated with CCS; Long-term funding commitments from various public and private sources ensure the continuity of research programs which are necessary for the development of CO2 utilization; Technical: lack of infrastructures for transport and storage; Social: CCS is unknown for the overall public; resistance to CO2 storage concept; environmental risks concerning health and water pollution. Efforts have been made to combat these barriers. As mentioned, to reach the targets defined in the Paris Agreement, immediate/prompt action would be required to reduce CO2 emissions. Processes related to CCS can be classified as carbon-positive, near carbon- neutral, or carbon-negative. Carbon positive corresponds to the majority of the processes, which still emit CO2 for the atmosphere. Carbon-neutral and carbon-negative emissions are responsible for zero carbon emissions (neutral) and CO2 emissions reduction to the atmosphere. Examples of the “negative” processes able to capture CO2 are Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) and Direct Air Capture (DAC). 4. Climate Positive Solutions 4.1. Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) Bioenergy has always been present in the world and used by humans to produce heat. Bioenergy is used in vehicles as fuel (bioethanol) and provides electricity by burning biomass [14]. BECCS is part of the broader CCS technology and is emerging as one of the most advanced technologies to decarbonize emission-intensive industries and sectors and enable negative emissions [14]. This is a group of different technologies to produce energy from biomass and CO2 storage. This process using biomass as a fuel source because biomass feedstock draws down CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Biomass is burned (combusted or converted) to biofuel, using digestion or fermentation processes. The heat generated can be used for electricity generation or industrial applications, such as cement, pulp and papermaking, waste incineration, steel and iron, and petrochemical. Conversion leads to gaseous (when digestion is applied) or liquid (when fermentation occurs) fuels production. In the liquid case, it leads to the production of bioethanol. Then, CO2 is captured from a biomass energy conversion and permanently stored in a suitable geological formation. At the end of the process, the CO2 emitted during bioenergy production, the CO2 transported, converted, and utilized should be lower than the CO2 stored to achieve the primary target-negative emissions. Figure 9 presents a scheme of the BECCS. Figure 9. Scheme of bioenergy and carbon capture and storage (BECCS) (adapted from Consoli [14]).PDF Image | Current Developments of Carbon Capture Storage
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