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Energies 2021, 14, 2406 17 of 26 Figure 12. Schematic representation of the DAC process (adapted from Sinha and Realff [73]). Carbon Engineering Ltd. (CE, Vancouver, BC, Canada) uses liquid alkali metal oxide sorbents regenerated by heat at around 800 ◦C. CE uses natural gas to power its ma- chines, co-capturing CO2 from the flue gas stream of the burned natural gas in addition to atmospheric capture [74,75]. Global Thermostat (GT, New York, NY, USA) is a US company which uses a solid amine-based sorbent material for CO2 capture from air, regenerated at around 80–100 ◦C [76]. Also, using DAC design, Climeworks AG (Zurich, Switzerland) capture CO2 with a system based on an adsorption-desorption process with alkaline-functionalized adsorbents. The adsorption is performed at ambient conditions while the desorption occurs using a temperature-vacuum-swing (TVSA) process. The pressure decrease and the temperature increase from 80 to 120 ◦C, allow to release the CO2 [76]. The enriched stream of CO2 is produced at 1 bar with a purity of >99.8%. If the relative humidity on the feed is high, the H2O is also extracted from the air as a by-product [77]. The first commercial DAC plant was presented in 2017 in Switzerland from Climeworks, with a capacity for 900 t of CO2 captured per year from the air. Currently, in Europe, in the United States (US), and in Canada, there are more than 15 DAC plants operating worldwide, most of them are small and sell CO2 captured for use (in carbonated drinks, for example). However, the first large-scale DAC plant has been developed in the US by a Carbon Engineering Ltd. and Occidental Petroleum partnership. The plant will capture up to 1 MtCO2 (metric tonnes of CO2) per year for EOR. This unit could become operational as early as 2023 [76]. Table 4 presents the companies that are working to commercialize DAC systems nowadays. Several studies have been presented with direct air capture applications to obtain climate change mitigation, some more optimistic than others. Creutzig, et al. [78] estimates that DAC will reach 1 Gt of CO2 per year in 2050. Fasihi, et al. [79] presents an estimative of about 7 Gt of CO2 captured per year in the energy system, and about 8 Gt of CO2 captured per year in carbon dioxide removal in the same year. Today, the costs involved in direct air capture systems are approximately 510 € per tonnes of CO2 captured [80]. The transition to a net-zero energy system, in which the amount of CO2 released to the atmosphere is equivalent to the amount being removed, is highly dependent on the carbon removal processes. The application of decarbonization strategies in the several sectors as aviation and heavy industry would be very difficult. In these cases, carbon removal technologies can be the key for an effective transition. In the 2030 Sustainable Development Scenario, it was defined that CO2 capture by direct air capture should reach almost 10 Mt of CO2 per year (in 2030) [76].PDF Image | Current Developments of Carbon Capture Storage
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