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Energies 2021, 14, 2406 18 of 26 Company Carbon Engineering Ltd. Climeworks Global Thermostat Infinitree Skytree Type of System Liquid solvent Solid sorbent Solid sorbent Solid sorbent Solid sorbent Type of Technology Potassium hydroxide solution/calcium carbonation Amine-functionalized filter Amine-modified monolith Ion-exchange sorbent Porous plastic beads functionalized with benzylamines Type of Regeneration Temperature Temperature or vacuum Temperature and/or vacuum Humidity Temperature Purity/ Application 99% 99%w/dilution depending on the application 99% 3–5% algae Air purification, greenhouses Scale Pilot 1 tonne per day Demonstration 900 tonne per year 1000 tonne per year Laboratory Appliance Table 4. Companies Working to Commercialize Systems of Direct Air Capture technology [72]. 5. Industrial Processes Industrial processes are responsible for raw materials conversion into useable prod- ucts, which results in energy consumption and CO2 emissions. For this conversion, fossil fuels continue to satisfy most of the industrial energy demand. However, these processes can be transformed to meet global climate changes. The industrial CO2 emissions can be categorized into four main groups [27]: • Energy-related emissions: combustion of coal, oil, and natural gas (considering biomass with an emission factor of zero); • Process emissions: associated with chemical and physical reactions, such as the production of aluminum, ferroalloys, lubricants and paraffins, and fuels through coal and gas-to-liquid processes, etc.; • Direct emissions: all emissions associated with industrial processes, except the elec- tricity, heat, and steam purchases (energy-related emissions plus process emissions); • Indirect emissions: all emissions “out of the facilities”, including electricity, heat and steam purchased. Industry is responsible for about one-quarter of CO2 emissions from energy and industrial processes, being 90% of the direct GHG emissions from industrial production, and 40% of global energy demand, especially in cement, in iron and steel and in chemicals industries, which are the most challenging for emissions reduction. Between 1990 and 2017, industrial CO2 emissions increased 70%. According to Clean Technology Scenario (CTS), consistent with the Paris Agreement defined targets, more than 28 Gt of CO2 must be captured from industrial facilities until 2060 [27]. CCUS can be a critical factor in the industry decarbonization action. CCUS technologies will contribute to a reduction of 21 Gt of CO2 of emissions (27%) in the period of 2017–2060, from the cement (18%, capturing 5 Gt of CO2), iron and steel (15%, capturing 10 Gt of CO2), and chemical subsectors (38%, capturing 14 Gt of CO2) [27]. Several industrial sectors produce CO2 at different temperatures, concentrations, purities, pressures, and volumes, and for all of them, carbon dioxide capture technologies could be applicable. This will be vital for energy-intensive industries, such as those listed below to capture carbon if the EU is to reach its climate targets. These industry subsectors consider iron and steel, chemicals and petrochemicals, cement, pulp and paper, aluminium, and other industries such as ceramics and glass production. The costs involved in CO2 capture vary greatly by point source and by capture technology. Costs range from 15 USD per tonne of carbon dioxide (USD/t of CO2) to 60 USD/t of CO2 for concentrated CO2 streams (e.g., natural gas processing and bioethanol production through fermentation), or from 40 USD/tCO2 to 80 USD/tCO2 for coal- and gas-fired power plants. The costs can be over USD 100/t of CO2 for smaller or more dilute point sources (e.g., industrial furnaces) [27].PDF Image | Current Developments of Carbon Capture Storage
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