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JRC team are stated in the modelling approach. The scale of each process reflects the current size of fossil fuel-based plants. 2. A series of technological, economic and environmental key performance indicators are evaluated based on the mass and energy balances provided by the model. 3. A financial analysis determines under what conditions the CDU plant has a positive NPV. These conditions mainly represent adequate prices per tonne of CO2 and for the product sold into the market. 4. The market perspective, looking at the year 2030, evaluates how much feedstock CO2 is needed to fulfil the demand from different penetration pathways for each product, based on current tendencies and policies. "Conservative" and "optimistic" points of view are considered to quantify the tonnes of CO2 needed to supply the assumed demand of the CO2-based plants. Methanol (MeOH) is currently a chemical that may play an important role as fuel for the transport sector, used as it is or further transformed into its derivatives, like formaldehyde or dimethyl ether (DME). The process modelled considers a catalytic reactor, which combines H2 and CO2, and the downstream product separation steps (in flash vessels and in a distillation column). It is validated and optimised to decrease external energy needs as much as possible. Currently, MeOH synthesis from captured CO2 is at TRL 6-7. The selected scale for modelling is 450 kt MeOH/yr. The electrolyser is the major electricity consumer, and it has to be powered by renewables (or zero CO2 emissions) sources in order to have a positive value for the CO2 used, required as a design condition in this work. The process is highly efficient in terms of CO2 and H2 conversion. The MeOH CDU plant, if used instead of the benchmark conventional plant (i.e. the weighted-average plant in western Europe – a share of plants that use natural gas or residual fuel oil as feedstock), has a CO2 change (reduction) of 77 %, mainly due to the difference in direct CO2 emissions. Operating costs are higher than benefits, with electricity cost being the main contributor. In order to be economically competitive in the market (NPV at least zero), different univariate and bivariate sensitivity analyses have shown that the most important variables are electricity and MeOH prices. Prices of electricity lower than EUR 9/MWh, prices of MeOH higher than EUR 1 378/t (reference market price, EUR 350/t), or an income from feedstock CO2 higher than EUR 665/t, would allow a positive NPV for the MeOH CDU plant. The bivariate analysis demonstrates that with low prices for electricity, for instance, EUR 14/MWh, the plant is able to pay for the tonne of CO2 used, and with "free" electricity, MeOH can be even sold at a price which is lower than the MeOH market price (EUR 240/t). The market penetration pathways take into account a MeOH yearly demand increase, the coverage of imports, its possible use in the shipping sector, its use in fuel cells and residential cooking (as stationary applications) and its use in passenger and light commercial vehicles, according to the hypotheses made based on the Fuel Quality Directive. The current MeOH production is 58 Mt/yr worldwide (2012). In 2030, meeting the European yearly demand would require 41-76 MtCO2/yr, meaning that 16-31 MtCO2/yr of CO2 will not be emitted, because of the use of the CDU technology, instead of the conventional technology, to provide the required 28-52 Mt MeOH/yr (the ranges are determined by the conservative and optimistic points of view). Natural gas consumption would decrease by 17-31 Mt/yr. As a matter of comparison, the report from the European Parliamentary Research Service [1] points out values between 42-71 Mt MeOH/yr needed, requiring 69-104 Mt/yr of CO2 by year 2050. It can be said that the different values are in the same range, and that our report assumes a faster MeOH penetration. Formic acid (FA) is a candidate to be used as a hydrogen carrier, thus H2 demand could lead to a remarkable increase in the demand for FA. The process modelled is composed of a catalytic reactor that combines H2 and CO2, and the following product separation steps; liquid-liquid separation and two distillation columns. The technology is at TRL 3-5. The assumed plant scale used is 12 kt FA/yr. The electrolyser and the steam generator have to be powered by renewable (or zero CO2 emissions) 12PDF Image | evaluation of CO2 utilisation for fuel production
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