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sources to have a net amount of CO2 used, as a design condition in this work. The simulated process is highly efficient in terms of CO2 conversion, but less efficient for H2 conversion. It entails less CO2 emissions when compared to the benchmark conventional process considered (i.e. methyl formate hydrolysis with CO synthesis using heavy fuel oil): about 92 % of CO2 change (reduction), where the use of renewables has an important role. Operating costs are higher than benefits, with the variable costs of consumables (mainly catalysts) and electricity, followed by steam, as main contributors. In order to have a positive NPV, the sensitivity of the NPV to variations of the prices of FA, O2, CO2, electricity, steam, consumables and to the variation of the ISBL have been evaluated. The most important variables are consumables (particularly, the specialised catalysts), FA and electricity prices. Prices of FA higher than EUR 1 700/t (reference price, EUR 650/t), or an income from CO2 higher than EUR 1 100/t, would allow positive NPV. The bivariate analysis demonstrates that the price of electricity by itself cannot make the CDU plant competitive. A lower price of consumables is crucial, and this may be only achieved by sustained R & D. FA has a current global production of 0.62 Mt/yr (2012). The estimate of different penetration pathways, as in the fuel cells market for stationary applications and its use as a hydrogen carrier in the transportation sector by year 2030 (in fuel cell vehicles and combined with compressed natural gas) results in a total European demand for FA of a minimum of 5 Mt FA/yr, entailing a demand of 4 MtCO2/yr, or a maximum of 24 Mt/yr of FA, involving 21 MtCO2/yr. This means that there are 10- 47 MtCO2/yr that would not be emitted because of the possible use of the CDU process, instead of the conventional one (the ranges are determined by the conservative and optimistic points of view). This would also imply savings in heavy fuel oil consumption, of the order of 2-10 Mt/yr. The results of our gate-to-gate analysis demonstrate that the carbon dioxide utilisation processes examined can provide a net contribution to CO2 emissions reduction at plant level. However, neither the context nor the "supply chain" are yet in place. The context, i.e. policy and regulation, could take into account products made of CO2 (as the recent revised Renewable Energy and Fuel Quality Directives are paving the way to fuels synthesised from CO2). At present, however, CO2 fuels and products are not yet fully defined in any directive. There is a need for R & D in electrolysers to become less expensive. There is also a need to combine CDU with renewable energies. The MeOH and FA CDU plants are not yet competitive in the market. Different conditions are needed for these technologies to reach profitability, and a combination of them would be desirable, e.g. lower electricity and steam prices (also, better plant integration), and higher revenues for using CO2 and/or for the products synthesised by CO2. R & D, especially in the area of the use of state-of-the-art catalysts and solvents, is also crucial to decrease operating costs. Overall, this study remains a favourable evaluation of the CDU plant, thus, an upper limit for CO2 emissions reduction. Also market penetration pathways have been overestimated. Different simplifications were taken into account for the emissions allocated to renewables, availability of low-cost renewable energy, the benchmark processes emission evaluation and for the market context. Depending on the specific conditions of each case, i.e. source of feedstock CO2, source of H2 and/or source of electricity, amount of electricity needed and price of electricity, price of the product, the CDU plant may be directly profitable and may contribute at different levels to decrease CO2 emissions. The capacity of the CDU plant depends on the available renewable electricity that is used to power it, rather than on the demand of the product. Under specific conditions, the business model becomes feasible. 13PDF Image | evaluation of CO2 utilisation for fuel production
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