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obtaining, transport, transformation and product consumption, so as to guarantee the environmental benefit of using CO2 as raw material [7]. CO2 utilisation processes involve a number of products to be synthesised, and as such, the status of the technology varies according to each synthesised product. CCU and CDU have potential in the context of resource security and energy transformation. CCS and CCU (CCUS) have been acknowledged as important research and development priorities of the European Energy Union if it is to reach its 2050 climate objectives in a cost-effective way [8]. Moreover, it is one of the research priorities of the Strategic Energy Technologies (SET) Plan of the European Union [9] as well as a research theme in the Integrated Roadmap of the SET Plan, which aim to consolidate the updated technology roadmaps of the SET Plan and to propose research and innovation actions [10]. In this context, CCU is not only relevant to the energy generation or to the heavy industry sectors, but also in a number of other policy areas: GHG and climate change, emissions of the transport sector, waste disposal (for instance, when using ashes as raw material, together with CO2), chemical industry and technological development. The potential of CCU is recognised. However, further research is needed to evaluate its capacity and to come up with the most suitable strategies and business plans for its implementation. 1.2 Brief literature review The synthesis of products from CO2 is already commercialised. The CO2 usually derives from industrial processes as a by-product (e.g. H2 production by steam reforming of natural gas or ethanol production by fermentation), not captured CO2 from flue gas streams or from the atmosphere. The value chain for captured CO2 remains similar to the one that already exists for the CO2 by-product: once the CO2 is obtained, it is liquefied and transported to end-users. Current uses, among others, are in urea synthesis, beverage and food industry, in medical applications, to make rubber/plastics or mixed with gases/aerosols (as propellant or as blowing agent) [11]. Total greenhouse gas emissions in EU-28 (2013) were 4 600 MtCO2e/yr (3), while the global market of CO2 were around 20 MtCO2/yr (2010) (4), showing a clear disparity among both scales. Despite similarities with the current merchant CO2 supply chain, the CCUS supply chain is facing important challenges, as summarised as follows. Li et al. [12] point out R & D in the capture area, through an analysis of patents that have been granted for CO2 capture techniques (removal and separation) in recent years (2006-2010). Efficiency and economy are still challenges in the capture of CO2 from large and stationary sources. Roddy [13] describes the differences between CO2 capture in industrial and power plants: while power plants allow for post-combustion configurations, industrial facilities will usually have to deal with less direct retrofitting layouts, as for pre- combustion and oxy-fuel combustion configurations. Nevertheless, retrofitting options can be equally expensive as new plants, as pointed out in Rubin et al. [14] for power plants. The same work points out the potential benefit and interest of integrated capture-transport networks, including large and small sources of CO2. The size of the networks will depend on future context developments, codes and standards for CO2 pipelines. CO2 emissions capture from the atmosphere would shorten the supply chain, as the capture step could be at the same site than the CDU process, thus, avoiding transport. Such a technology, for example, may be based on filtering and amines combination principles (5). This is however a process that is currently at low TRL. 3 http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics- explained/index.php/File:Total_greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_countries_%28including_international_aviation_and_excluding_LULUCF%2 9,_1990_-_2013_%28million_tonnes_of_CO2_equivalents%29_updated.png 4 http://www.advancedcryogenicsltd.com/home/gasworldkievhandout.pdf 5 https://setis.ec.europa.eu/publications/setis-magazine/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage/co2-raw-material-waxes-and-fuels 16PDF Image | evaluation of CO2 utilisation for fuel production
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