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A number of studies [4], [15]–[19] highlight the wide range of possibilities for CDU, with each one at different levels of development, different product scales and market prospects. Catalytic synthesis is the most developed conversion method in the chemical industry. However, electrochemical and photochemical conversion, still at low technology readiness levels (TRL), may be more efficient and emit less CO2. Electroreduction of CO2 with steam, in a solid oxide electrolyser cell (SOEC) is a well- integrated process that produces inert free synthesis gas to be further converted into any desired chemical. For example, the synthesis of methanol through a SOEC is studied in [20] (through system modelling); the process reached energy efficiencies of about 75 %. A quantification of the life cycle GHG emissions is performed in [21] for the co-electrolysis of CO2 and steam to synthesise formate- based products (comparing different bibliographic case studies); it is pointed out that integration with renewables is crucial to secure the environmental sustainability of the process, as well as further upstream or downstream heat integration, when possible. The production of chemicals and fuels from CO2 is mostly at the development phase. Depending on the technology used to synthesise the final product from CO2, the process is more or less sensitive to impurities in the CO2 stream (i.e. more or less expensive capture methods), for instance, ranging from formic acid synthesis (higher purity) to mineralisation (impure streams). A high purity grade of the CO2 stream is usually required by conversion processes with sensitive catalysts and with products that could modify its properties due to the presence of impurities [22]. According to Chapman et al. [23], successful CDU processes may be linked to their tolerance to impurities in captured CO2 streams. In the particular case of CO2 from power plants, the composition of the CO2 stream will vary according to the level of fuel oxidation. Nowadays, the quality of the stream of captured CO2 is determined by transport, storage and environmental requirements and costs, however, this "standard" quality still remains uncertain despite of the existing experiences [24]. Algae production is an example of an emerging technology for biofuel synthesis, with a probable relevant contribution as a capture/utilisation technology, as algae needs CO2 as feedstock. Other microorganism-based processes, as well as mineralisation integrate capture and utilisation [25], [26]. Other CO2 streams made available from other processes (like biogas synthesis or captured from the atmosphere) may have higher purities at lower costs and may be adapted to provide the specific requirements of purity of the CO2 utilisation plant. CDU processes referred as Power-to- Liquid and Power-to-Gas processes convert electricity into a liquid medium, like methanol, or into a gas medium, like hydrogen or methane. This technology gives a value to the surplus electricity produced by fluctuating renewable sources (6), while indirectly introducing renewables into the transport infrastructure (7). Carbon dioxide utilisation is attracting the attention of policy makers as an alternative (i) to motivate local economies (with appropriate conditions to install economically and environmentally feasible CDU plants), (ii) manage anthropogenic CO2 emissions, and (iii) potentially decrease CO2 emissions and fossil fuel dependence. These are the reasons why CDU applications may have different motivation drivers, depending on local conditions. Reports such as the ones from the Global CCS Institute (GCCSI) [27], the Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum (CSLF) [28], [29] and the French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME) [30] highlight the potential of existing and future CO2 utilisation options, their limited but feasible scale contribution, and their competitive advantages. 1.2.1 CCU and CDU in Europe In February 2015, the European Commission adopted the Energy Union Strategy (8) to face climate change and to accordingly transform the European energy system. Among the reinforced 6 https://setis.ec.europa.eu/publications/setis-magazine/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage/dr-a%C3%AFcha-el-khamlichi-french 7 https://setis.ec.europa.eu/publications/setis-magazine/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage/dr-lothar-mennicken-german 8 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2015%3A80%3AFIN 17PDF Image | evaluation of CO2 utilisation for fuel production
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