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reproductive toxicant (Repr. 1B – H360D), which is under discussion by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). Methanol would therefore require an update of its chemical safety report (CSR) [87]. The use of MeOH as fuel for road transportation, will require additional safety precautions compared to the use of conventional fuel systems [83]. Other initiatives are also needed to equip fuelling stations with the appropriate MeOH dispensing capabilities [1]. The Methanol Institute published the "Methanol Safe Handling Manual and a Crisis Communication Guidebook" (2013) [88] as guidance for distributors and users. Due to its intrinsic characteristics, ethanol is a direct competitor [1]. As a fuel for ships, the different initiatives need to take into account its low flashpoint (12°C [89]) and avoid flammability. Moreover, the company Lloyds Register is involved in the development of a set of provisional rules and regulations for the classification of MeOH. The pilot programme SPIRETH is helping to move forward in the necessary arrangements for MeOH storage, distribution and handling, assessment of safety and risk perspectives, as used by IMO to develop the IGF [89], [90]. 3.2 Conventional production of methanol Methanol is typically produced by the catalytic conversion of pressurised synthesis gas (or syngas - H2, CO and CO2) according to Eq. (8): CO2H CHOH 23 Eq. (8) The reaction is moderately exothermic (if compared for instance to methanation or gasoline synthesis) and a major challenge is the removal of the excess heat produced in order to shift the equilibrium towards the products and to avoid side reactions and catalyst sintering [91]. Syngas can be produced either by steam reforming, in the case of light hydrocarbons such as natural gas or light naphtha, or by partial oxidation, used mainly in the case of heavy oils or solid carbonaceous materials. Methanol synthesis has been a commercial process for around 80 years. Initially, coal was the main feedstock, as it is nowadays in China [92]. Methanol is mainly produced nowadays from natural gas [67]. The feedstocks used in the European industry are mainly natural gas and residual fuel oil with a ratio of 3:7 [57]. Steam reforming consumes 36.5 GJ/tMeOH or 33.4 GJ/tMeOH of natural gas, without and with primary reform, respectively [93]. Partial oxidation consumes 37.2 GJ/tMeOH of oil [93]. Typical CO2 emissions from MeOH production range from 0.5 tCO2/tMeOH for steam reforming with primary reformate to 1.4 tCO2/tMeOH for partial oxidation of residual oil [93]. In the case of western European plants, due to the use of both technologies, the weighted average CO2 emissions (direct and indirect; these last calculated according to the electricity consumed and the average European energy system in year 2013) are about 0.76 tCO2/tMeOH [57]. They have an average size of 450 kt MeOH/yr [57]. The selected scale for modelling is 450 kt MeOH/yr. The cost of MeOH production can be estimated as a weighted average among the western European facilities. The average feedstock cost (i.e. natural gas and fuel oil, for 2013) is EUR 346/tMeOH, while the average costs for utilities (including electricity, cooling and process water, catalysts and other materials) are an additional EUR 18.5/tMeOH, with 86 % of it corresponding to electricity needs [57], [94], [95]. About 60 % of the cost of a typical natural gas plant to produce MeOH is the methane reforming unit [92]. The MeOH price is influenced by the price of its raw fossil fuel. In particular, the high price of MeOH in EU compared to other areas is caused by relatively higher prices of natural gas [96]. As example, Methanex is moving two of its MeOH plants from Chile to Louisiana, with a total production over 1 Mt MeOH/yr [97], where cheaper shale gas is exploited [98], [99]. 31PDF Image | evaluation of CO2 utilisation for fuel production
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