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Energies 2019, 12, 809 2 of 41 the fractional distillation of crude oil at atmospheric pressure and temperatures between 250–360 ◦C [1]. From the construction of the first compression ignition (CI) internal combustion engine by Rudolph Diesel in 1897, petroleum diesel has dominated the transport sector, but also contributed significantly to the environmental pollution and climate change due to the extensive emission of CO2 into the atmosphere. Petroleum diesel is also burned in dedicated burners to provide hot water and space heating in residential and commercial buildings. In an effort to mitigate the effects of global warming and move towards energy independence, the European Union (EU) has set the target that all new buildings must have near-zero environmental footprint until 2020 [2]. Biomass and biomass-derived biofuels such as bio-hydrogen, bio-gas, bio-methane, bio-ethanol, green gasoline, biodiesel and green diesel are in the crest of international interest, as they can mitigate CO2 levels in the atmosphere and substitute fossil fuels in the future energy supply. Biodiesel is produced by the transesterification of triglycerides contained in biomass matter such as vegetable oils (e.g. rapeseed, soybean, cottonseed, palm, corn, sunflower, coconut, peanut, camelina, carinata and jatropha oils), animal fats, micro-algal oils and used cooking oils [3]. Transesterification is the chemical process of the biomass lipids usually with methanol, in which triglycerides are transformed into Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME or biodiesel) and glycerol in presence of a homogeneous alkaline catalyst such as KOH or NaOH, at a temperature of about 60 ◦C and atmospheric pressure [4]. Although the biodiesel industry has experienced enormous growth between 2005 and 2015, with production rising from 10% of total biofuel output in 2005 to almost 25% in 2015, it relies heavily of favorable policy instruments (i.e., economic subsidies) as its production costs are still very high [5–7]. A further issue to be considered is the co-production of crude glycerol, as it undermines the environmental credential of the industry, with efforts towards its energetic utilization still at research level [8–11]. Biodiesel is a product of biological origin leading to significantly lower net CO2 accumulation in atmosphere since biomass is produced with an equal adsorption of atmospheric CO2 during the process of photosynthesis. At the same time, biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel which does not contain any sulfur and its combustion is cleaner leading to reduced emissions of CO, unburned hydrocarbons (HCs) and smoke. It also has enhanced lubricity which protects the engine components of the fuel delivery system, such as fuel pumps and injectors. On the other hand, high oxygen content means that biodiesel has some important disadvantages, such as low oxidative stability, high viscosity and poor cold weather performance (due to high cloud point and high pour point). In addition, biodiesel shows lower stability during storage and it also attacks certain metals such as copper, zinc, tin and lead, causing corrosion or swells various elastomers used for the sealing of the engines. In 2006 about two thousand fuel stations in Europe were providing “pure” biodiesel (B100), but concerns over the compatibility of B100 with the equipment of modern compression ignition engines (common rail fuel injection systems, particulate filters etc.) have limited the maximum allowable concentration of biodiesel for use in EU vehicles to 7% by volume (B7) [12]. Finally, biodiesel increases the emission of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and has a lower energy content than petroleum diesel [13,14]. As a result, the utilization of B100 or biodiesel blends with high biodiesel content results in a noticeable drop of the engine thermal efficiency and brake power output [15]. Green diesel is a new generation biofuel also known as “renewable diesel”, “second generation diesel”, “bio-hydrogenated diesel”, “Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)”, “Bio-Hydrogenated Diesel (BHD)”, “Hydrogenation Derived Renewable Diesel (HDRD)”, “Hydro- treated Vegetable Oil” or “Hydrogenated Vegetable Oil”. The last two names share the same acronym HVO and have been used during the last decade due to the fact that the vegetable oils were the most usual biomass feedstock for the production of this biofuel. Today, green diesel is also produced from other biomass sources such as animal or fish fats but the term HVO is still in use in the industry as well as in the fuel standards and the European regulation [16]. Green diesel is a mixture of straight chain and branched saturated hydrocarbons which typically contain 15 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule (C15 to C18). This composition resembles the fossil petroleum diesel and allows green diesel utilization in CI engines in pure form or as a blend with any desired blending ratio without engine modifications [17,18].PDF Image | Green Diesel: Biomass Feedstocks, Production Technologies
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