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Processes 2020, 8, 548 6 of 22 3.1. Homogeneous Catalyst Homogeneous catalysis generally involves the catalyst and reactant presenting together in the same phase (generally liquid). Homogeneous catalytic systems usually display the most active high conversion and selectivity. On the contrary, for the heterogeneous catalytic system, the catalyst is usually in a solid form while the reactant can be in liquid or gas phases. Usually, the heterogeneous catalyst is less active when compared with their homogeneous analogues because the limitation of the reactant to migrate to the catalytic sites causes low activity of heterogeneous catalysts, originating from poor diffusion [14]. However, homogeneous catalysts have several practical disadvantages, namely, lesser robust and lower recyclability as opposed to heterogeneous catalysts. One of the most use techniques for combining the high activity of a homogeneous catalyst with easily and effectively catalyst recovery is the “heterogenization” of the active species via such functionalization/immobilization support materials [19]. Table 1 summarizes different classes and types of homogeneous catalysts on CO2 cycloaddition reaction performance. Table 1. Operational conditions and the corresponding outputs from the CO2 cycloaddition reactions catalyzed by different homogeneous catalysts. Epoxide Catalyst Class/Type Cocatalyst Bimetallic salen complexes PO Bimetallic Salen-Co PO Bimetallic Salen-Al PO Bimetallic Salen-Zn Monometallic non-salen complexes 48 75.8 48 73.2 ND 48 72.1 ND TBACl 25 1.01 TBAB 25 1.01 TBAI 25 1.01 - 40 1.01 - 40 1.01 - 40 1.01 - 40 1.01 - 60 1.01 - 70 1.01 - 70 1.01 - 70 1.01 TBAB 25 1 TBAB 25 1 TBAB 25 10 TBAB 25 10 TBAB 25 10 - 20 1 TBAB 0 1.01 TBAB 20 1.01 TBAB 20 1.01 - 20 1.01 TBAB 20 1.01 24 52 ND T (°C) P Time Yield (bar) (h) (%) Conv. (%) Organocatalysts ND [14] Ref. ECH Ionic liquid/2,6-pyridinedimethanol 24 67 24 92 ND 5 20 ND 5 10 ND 5 12 ND 5 49 ND 5 85 ND 5 89 ND 3 93 ND 2 98 ND 24 ≈100 a 100 3 ≈44 a 44 6 ≈71 a 71 24 ≈100 a 100 SEO DES/ChCl:glycerol DES/ChCl:Ethylene glycol DES/ChCl:benzoic acid DES/ChCl:Urea(100mg) DES/ChCl:Urea (200mg) [20] 37 [21] 6 ≈60 a 60 DES/ChCl:Urea (300mg) Monometallic salen complexes 3 ≈37a SO Salophen (Figure 6a; R = tert-butyl, X = Cl) Salophen (Figure 6a; R = MeO, X = Br) HO PO SO ECH ND [23] Zn(II) TPP Co-cryptand - 43 82 8 43 ND 12 32 ND ND [22] 24 48 48 6 ND 48 11 ND ND [24]PDF Image | Green Pathway Utilizing CO2 Cycloaddition Reaction Epoxide
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