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ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering Perspective negative press, rather than by science. The movement towards pragmatism is welcome.” Hence, there is a move toward “food and biofuel” with the realization that renewable biomass can make an important contribution to energy and socio-economic development without affecting food security. Moreover, the whole discussion is a nonissue in parts of the world, for example, in Brazil, that have more than enough arable land to produce all the food and fuel that is needed. Other prime examples of societal factors associated with technological advances are job creation (or loss) and the genetically modified organisms debate. Many of the early approaches, such as that of the ETH group48 and the EATOS49 and Eco-scale51 methodologies, included an economic metric. BASF developed Eco-efficiency Analysis93−96 as a tool for quantifying the sustainability of products and processes over the whole life cycle (cradle-to- grave) taking both economic and ecological aspects into account. Ecological data are collected according to LCA rules of ISO 14040 and divided into six main categories: consumption of raw materials, energy consumption, emissions to air, water, and soil (wastes), toxicity potential of substances employed and produced, risk potential of misuse, and land use (Table 5). Emissions impacts are further subdivided into emissions to air, water, and solid wastes (Table 6). Solid wastes are further subdivided into three categories, and their impact potentials are calculated based on the average disposal costs. For material consumption, individual materials are weighted according to their reserves. Toxicity potentials are based on EU classifications of hazardous materials. The abuse and risk potential reflects the potential dangers of accidents in the manufacturing process. The environmental impact data are normalized and subjected to societal weighting factors to give an overall environmental relevance factor. [The least attractive process is assigned a value of 1, and alternatives are set in relation to that.] An overall cost calculation takes the flow of material and energy and all relevant secondary processes into account and affords a cost relevance factor. The ratio of the environment relevance (E) to the costs relevance (C) gives the eco-efficiency ratio, E/C, of the product or process. Dach and Roschangar and co-workers97 described a method- ology used by Boehringer Ingelheim to define a good chemical manufacturing process. The primary objective was to affect a smooth transfer of a well-developed, safe, scalable, robust, and economical process to the Production Department. Six of the total of eight criteria were grouped under the heading, Conversion Cost Factors, and the remaining two were Material Cost Factors and Ecoscale. Conversion costs related to the production of the externally procured materials, which were divided into commodity chemicals, raw materials, and custom- made proprietary intermediates, were considered to be reflected in their cost price. Conversion Cost Factors were divided into Process Efficiency and Process Reproducibility. The former consisted of atom economy (AE), chemical yield, and Volume−Time− Output (VTO), defined as the nominal volume of all reactors (m3) multiplied by the hours per batch and divided by the output (kg) per batch. If the VTO is less than 1, the process is acceptable, and if it is considerably more than 1, it needs to be improved. The conversion cost can be calculated readily from the VTO. The E factor is used as the indicator of the potential environmental impact of the process and PMI to measure the resource utilization. Process reproducibility and robustness are defined by a Quality Service Level (QSL) and a Process K Excellence Index (PEI). The latter is an indicator of the performance, in terms of yield and cycle time, of diverse operations. The EcoScale criterion is an assessment of the process quality using a penalty point-based analysis of the yield, cost, safety, conditions, and ease of downstream processing derived from the Eco-scale methodology of van Aken.51 The Circular Economy. Increasing global concern for anthropogenic climate change is the major driver in the transition from a traditional linear flow of materials in a “take− make−use−dispose” economy to a greener, circular economy.98 The latter seeks to eliminate waste through deliberate design of products and processes with resource efficiency and recycling in mind, the underpinning philosophy of the European Commission’s “Roadmap to a resource efficient Europe”.99 Barry Commoner, an icon of industrial ecology, already recognized the linear vs circular economy dichotomy in the 1960s. He observed: “We have broken out of the circle of life, converting its endless cycles into man-made linear events: oil is taken from the ground, distilled into fuel, burned in an engine, converted thereby into noxious fumes that are emitted into the air.”100 However, the transition from the planned obsolescence of an unsustainable linear economy to a greener circular one is seriously hampered by the fact that economic comparisons are not being conducted on a level playing field. The true costs of established “take−make−use−dispose” production chains must include the costs of resource depletion, waste management, and environmental pollution that are currently externalized. New economic indicators are needed that take resource efficiency and circularity into account. We need to rethink how to close the loops of production chains, eliminate waste, and optimize ■resource efficiency. THE BIOBASED ECONOMY The seventh principle of Green Chemistry is “renewable rather than depleting raw materials”, and one of the great challenges of the 21st century is to implement the transition from an unsustainable economy based on nonrenewable fossil resour- cesoil, coal, and natural gasas raw materials to a biobased economy with renewable biomass as the feedstock.101,102 The pressing need for climate change mitigation and the conservation of natural carbon resources is driving the switch to a carbon-neutral manufacture of commodity chemicals, materials, and liquid fuels103,104 from renewable biomass in integrated biorefineries.105,106 However, the use of first- generation biomass feedstocks, such as corn and edible oil seeds, is not (perceived to be) a sustainable option in the longer term because of direct or indirect competition with food production. An alternative, second-generation scenario, more in line with the concept of a circular economy, involves the valorization of waste biomass,107 such as waste lignocellulose derived from agricultural and forestry residues, triglycerides from waste cooking oil, and even food supply chain waste.108 This will require the development of efficient chemocatalytic and, in particular, biocatalytic methods as key enabling technologies for the conversion of lignocellulose to its constituent sugars and their further conversion to liquid fuels and commodity chemicals.109 Appropriate sustainability metrics will be an essential component of any comparison of lignocellulose-based with oil- and gas-based routes to commodity chemicals. Various metrics have been used to measure the sustainability of transportation fuels derived from renewable biomass,110 but much less attention has been devoted to assessing the DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.7b03505 ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 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