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Scheme 3. Synthesis of Catechol from Glucose Using Genetically Modified E. coli a E. coli AB2834/pKD136/pKD9.069A, 37 °C. Scheme 4. Atom-Efficient Synthesis of Ibuprofen (water) is environmentally benign.57 The application of catalysis to dematerialization, reduced toxicity systems, benign and renewable energy systems, and efficiency makes it a central focus area for green chemistry research. Biobased/Renewables. The utilization of benign, renew- able feedstocks is a needed component of addressing the global depletion of resources. More than 98% of all organic chemicals are derived from petroleum.58 Achieving a sustainable chemical industry dictates switching from depleting finite sources to renewable feedstocks. Research in this area has focused on both the macro and molecular levels. The carbohydrate economy provides a rich source of feedstocks for synthesizing commodity59 and specialty chemicals. For example, agricultural wastes have been converted into useful chemical intermediates such as levulinic acid,60 alcohols, ketones, and carboxylic acids.61 Shells from crabs and other sea life serve as a valuable and plentiful source of chitin, which can be processed into chitosan, a biopolymer with a wide range of potential applications that are being currently explored for use in the oil-drilling industry.62 At the molecular level, genetic engineering produces valuable chemical products via nontraditional pathways. Glucose yields catechol and adipic acid63 (Scheme 3) using genetically engineered Escherichia coli. Recombinant Saccharomyces yeasts con- vert both glucose and xylose, present in cellulosic biomass, into ethanol.64 Carbon dioxide is also a renewable feed- stock that has been incorporated into polymers.65 Synthetic methodologies are being designed in both academia and industry that are more environmentally benign and more atom efficient.66-68 New synthetic pro- tocols have eliminated waste streams, improved worker safety, and increased yield in pharmaceutical processes (Scheme 4).69-71 Polymer synthesis has been redesigned to eliminate the use of highly toxic reagents and organic solvents.72 The utilization of biomimetic approaches,73,74 cascading reactions,75,76 and molecular self-assembly77,78 Scheme 5. Synthesis of Sodium Iminodisuccinate, a Biodegradable Chelating Agent represents some of the new chemistries being developed with green chemistry goals incorporated at the design stage. Analytical Methods. Analytical chemistry played a central role in the environmental movement by detecting, measuring, and monitoring environmental contaminants. As we move toward prevention and avoidance technology, analytical methods are being incorporated directly into processes in real time in an effort to minimize or eliminate the generation of waste before it is formed.79,80 Continuous process monitoring assists in optimizing the use of feedstocks and reagents while minimizing the formation of hazardous substances and unwanted byproducts. In addition, analytical methodologies have, themselves, his- torically used and generated hazardous substances and are being redesigned with green chemistry goals in mind by using benign mobile and stationary phases and placing greater emphasis on in situ analysis. Design of Safer Chemicals. Design for reduced hazard is a green chemistry principle that is being achieved in classes of chemicals ranging from pesticides to surfactants, from polymers to dyes.81-83 The principles of mechanistic toxicology allow for molecular design for reduced toxicity. Pesticides have been designed that are more selective and less persistent84 than many traditional organic pesticides. Surfactants (Scheme 5)85 and polymers18,86 have been developed to degrade in the environment at the end of their useful lifetime. Dyes without heavy metals87 are finding applications in the textile industry. Understanding the physicochemical properties that underlie even global hazards allows for manipulation to reduce those hazards. The systematic development and application of design rules for reduced hazard is one of the most important challenges facing green chemistry. Education. In the development of green chemistry, it has been realized that the next generation of scientists need to be trained in the methodologies, techniques, and principles that are central to green chemistry. Leadership from professional societies, notably the American Chemi- cal Society and the Royal Society of Chemistry, in col- laboration with the educational community, has resulted in a nascent yet impressive collection of educational materials and programs that continues to grow. Recently, the German and Japanese Chemical Societies have as- sumed leadership roles in promoting green chemistry education within their own countries. Educational initia- tives in green chemistry include textbooks, case studies, laboratory experiments, student organizations, summer schools, faculty training, secondary teacher training, resource tools, educational symposia, and professional workshops.3,88-93 Within the past few years, the first Origins, Status, and Challenges of Green Chemistry Anastas and Kirchhoff VOL. 35, NO. 9, 2002 / ACCOUNTS OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH 689PDF Image | Origins, Current Status, and Future Challenges of Green Chemistry
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