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Putting CO2 to Use: Creating Value from Emissions Technical analysis Table of contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Highlights .....................................................................................................................................2 Executive summary........................................................................................................................3 Findings and recommendations ...................................................................................................... 5 Policy recommendations ........................................................................................................................ 5 Millions of tonnes of CO2 are being used today ....................................................................................... 5 New pathways for CO2 are generating global interest ............................................................................6 CO2 use can contribute to climate goals, but with caveats ...................................................................... 7 The future scale of CO2 use is highly uncertain .......................................................................................8 Where are the emerging market opportunities? .....................................................................................9 CO2 use can complement CO2 storage, but is not an alternative ........................................................... 13 References ........................................................................................................................................... 14 Technical analysis ........................................................................................................................ 16 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 16 Setting the scene ......................................................................................................................... 17 What is CO2 use? .................................................................................................................................. 17 Where is CO2 being used today? ........................................................................................................... 20 What has spurred renewed interest in CO2 use? .................................................................................... 23 Who is currently investing in CO2 use, and why? ................................................................................... 25 How can CO2-derived products and services deliver climate benefits? .................................................. 26 Understanding the future market for CO2-derived products and services.........................................28 Which factors influence the future market? .......................................................................................... 28 Scalability............................................................................................................................................. 29 Competitiveness ..................................................................................................................................29 Climate benefits ................................................................................................................................... 32 Is it possible to assess the future market size? ...................................................................................... 36 Scaling up the market .................................................................................................................. 41 CO2-derived fuels ................................................................................................................................. 41 CO2-derived chemicals ......................................................................................................................... 48 CO2-derived building materials from natural minerals .......................................................................... 54 CO2-derived building materials from waste .......................................................................................... 59 CO2 use to enhance the yield of biological processes ............................................................................ 63 Where are suitable locations for an early market? ................................................................................ 65 Implications for policy .................................................................................................................. 67 Public procurement .............................................................................................................................. 68 Mandates ............................................................................................................................................. 69 Economic incentives.............................................................................................................................69 PAGE | 81 IEA. 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