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and small planes. Medium-sized hydrogen production systems will supply fossil-free feedstocks to industrial chemical plants (e.g. ammonia and syngas), while large scale electrolytic hydrogen production will be mainly used for energy storage purposes, i.e. to balance excess electricity by combining with re-electrification via fuel cells or injection into the gas grid. 1.2 State of the art and scientific challenges Today’s water electrolyzer technology comprises four distinct approaches, each of which will be dis- cussed in the following. Alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) is the oldest and most mature technology, beginning at the end of the 19th century. It developed on the industrial scale in the 1920s with unit capacities of up to 50 MW, plant capacities of 100s of MW, and demonstrated 30+ year unit durability [1]. Conventional AWE systems are also relatively cheap, utilizing Ni-based electrodes, KOH solutions, and inexpensive meshes as contact elements. However, they suffer from large ohmic losses, gas crossover (preventing operation at elevated pressure), and poor startup/shutdown dy- namics, making them suboptimal for coupling to renewable energy sources in a sustainable fuels and chemicals future. Polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysis (PEMWE) was originally developed in the 1950s for the regeneration of life support media (oxygen, water, carbon) in space and submarine vessels. The replacement of aqueous electrolyte with a relatively thin solid ion ex- change membrane largely solves the three challenges faced by AWE systems noted above, enabling higher current densities, higher pressures, and intermittent operation. PEMWEs have been recently deployed and developed to the MW stack scale with reported durability of more than 10,000 hours. However, further scale-up to the level necessitated by global consumption of fuels and chemicals, is currently not possible due to the technology’s reliance on scarce materials, namely iridium and platinum, which are used as electrocatalysts to accelerate the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), respectively. The sluggish kinetics of the OER constitute a particularly significant loss in energy efficency to the overall process, and iridium-oxide is the best known OER catalyst with long-term stability in the very corrosive acidic environment imposed by the proton conducting membrane. Because there is no known catalyst support with sufficient conductivity and stability, either unsupported iridium catalysts or large amounts of iridium on a non-conductive support are currently used, which results in very high catalyst loading. Consequently, PEMWE cells require of the order of 0.5g Ir/kW [2]. Iridium is an extremely rare material with an annual production of only a few tons per year. Assuming one ton per year is available for PEMWE implementation corresponds to an annual growth of only 2 GW, which is well short of the hundreds of GW/year necessary to have global impact. To reach this goal, the utilization of iridium needs to be improved to 0.01 g/kW, a factor of 50 better than today’s technology (Figure 1.1). Platinum, which is the catalyst used for HER at the PEMWE cathode, is also quite rare but 11PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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