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In the following, we will separately examine both of these approaches in detail, including the state of the art of current technologies, scientific challenges, and future research needs. 5.2 Thermal nitrogen reduction 5.2.1 State of the art and scientific challenges The currently implemented Haber-Bosch process is the product of more than a century of opti- mization and operates at nearly thermodynamic efficiency. The industrial catalyst used is fused iron with promoters Al2O3 (structural) and K (electronic). The iron precursor can either be or magnetite or wuberstite. An alternative is to use a supported ruthenium catalyst, which is slightly more active and enables operation at slightly lower temperatures and pressures, but its high cost relative to iron is a major drawback. Nearly all of the energy usage and CO2 emissions of conven- tional ammonia synthesis are associated with the production of H2 and not with the Haber-Bosch process itself. Therefore, replacing the fossil-derived H2 feedstock with sustainably produced H2 from water electrolysis is essential to making the Haber-Bosch process sustainable. Assuming that such technology for sustainably producing hydrogen exists, the key obstacles to sustainable ammo- nia synthesis via the Haber-Bosch process lie at the interface between renewable water electrolysis and the Haber-Bosch process. Specifically, a sustainable Haber-Bosch plant must be compatible with an intermittent influent of hydrogen at relatively low pressure (20 to 40 bar). At present, the N2 in air is separated from O2 by the combustion of unreacted methane; should electrolytic H2 be used instead, alternative means of producing pure N2 at large scales are required. As current industrial Haber-Bosch plants are run at a steady state for long periods of time, catalysts and other components of the process have not yet been tested under dynamic operating conditions. The reduced pressure of hydrogen from water electrolysis also represents a significant chal- lenge for conventional Haber-Bosch plants. Current state of the art catalysts operate at tempera- tures of at least 400 ◦C to a achieve reasonable reaction rate, which in turn requires high operating pressures of more than 150 bar to maintain a reasonable conversion due to the negative entropy of the overall reaction. Therefore, efficiently operating the Haber-Bosch process at the pressure set by water electrolysis requires the discovery of ammonia synthesis catalysts that are active at lower temperatures than those known today. 5.2.2 Future research needs Based on the identified challenges associated with coupling renewable hydrogen production to the Haber-Bosch process for ammonia synthesis, we propose two distinct research thrusts that require attention in the near future. 51PDF Image | sustainable production of fuels and chemicals
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